PER CURIAM.

The five appellants challenge their convictions and sentences on various counts of criminal activity involving drugs, guns and violence. For the reasons set out below, we affirm their convictions and their sentences in toto.

This case is a story of mayhem and disorder in and around the 200 block of K Street, Southwest, in the District of Columbia from the 1980s until 1998. Underlying the violence was appellants' organized and massive business of selling drugs, for which they stand convicted of participating in a narcotics conspiracy to distribute over 1,000 kilograms of marijuana. According to evidence believed by a jury, that drug business led to an astonishing amount of violence and a seemingly complete repudiation of civil society and respect for human life. Individual appellants in this case, sometimes acting in concert, stand convicted of the murders of eleven people: Melody Anderson, Anthony Fortune, Alonzo Gaskins, Chrishauna Gladden, Maurice Hallman, Leonard Hyson, Terita Lucas, Darnell Mack, Teresa Thomas, Donnell Whitfield, and Larry Wright. Some appellants also were convicted for numerous attempted murders, crimes of violence, and firearms offenses. All appellants were convicted for a racketeering conspiracy.

The beginning of the end of the K Street drug network came in late 1995, when the Federal Bureau of Investigation ("FBI" or "Bureau") started a comprehensive investigation into illegal drug sales in the area. FBI Special Agents set up an observation post from an apartment overlooking the 200 blocks of K and L Streets, Southwest, and started videotaping drug transactions, sometimes taping transactions they initiated through undercover work but often capturing unsolicited purchases. FBI video cameras captured appellants Vincent Hill, Jerome Martin, Samuel Carson, and Sean Coates in the midst of drug transactions, and an undercover Metropolitan Police Department ("MPD") officer made several controlled purchases of marijuana from appellants Hill and Martin. Appellant William Sweeney was incarcerated when some of these purchases took place.

The FBI's investigation lasted three years and suggested a long history of drug-dealing and an extraordinary breadth of violent acts. Crucial to the government's case was testimony from former associates of appellants and nearby residents—testimony that was undoubtedly difficult to obtain given evidence, as discussed below, that some of the appellants have a history of murdering or attempting to murder potential witnesses against them. Not every detail is known about appellants' lengthy pattern of lawlessness that preceded their indictment in 1998. Largely recounting the testimony of those cooperating witnesses, we provide below a chronological overview of the vast drug activity and violent acts underlying the jury's guilty verdicts. Our summary is by no means exhaustive of all facts underlying that activity. It serves to set the factual background upon which we later build in the analysis section of our opinion, where we address in greater detail the facts needed to understand appellants' specific challenges.

A. Factual Background.

This story begins with the criminal actions of appellant Vincent Hill. Several associates of appellants, cooperating with the government either voluntarily or pursuant to plea agreements, testified at trial that they grew up learning to sell drugs from Hill beginning as early as ages eleven to fourteen. One cooperating witness described it as a "big brother/little brother relationship," where he would beat up others at age eleven, get congratulated by Hill, be promoted to the role of "lookout" where he could protect Hill's drug activity, and eventually "graduat[e] into [dealing] drugs as the other guys" did. Hill would sell drugs in Southwest D.C. and have other individuals sell drugs for him, providing binoculars and walkie-talkies so that his underlings could warn him if police were approaching.

By the 1990s, appellants and a number of individuals (collectively, the "K Street dealers" or "K Street members"), were selling marijuana in and around the 200 block of K Street, Southwest, which continued through 1998. Over time, the K Street dealers developed an increasingly large and loosely organized drug-selling network. For example, as one seller described it, the group would "go in a sequence," with each seller taking a turn in serving the next arriving buyer. If a buyer "was to pull off with somebody's bag" and without paying, the dealers would "yell down the street" and "before that car could get out of the area somebody would have thrown a brick . . . [or] bottle" and, "[i]f someone had a gun at night . . . they would actually fire at the car."

The K Street dealers sold marijuana in and around K Street throughout the morning, afternoon, and evening. During 1994 and 1995, appellant Hill made the most money out of the group, taking in approximately $200 to $1,000 per day selling drugs. By 1996, appellant Hill made roughly $3,000 to $4,000 in illicit profits per week, while appellants Coates, Martin, and Sweeney made a little less. In addition to dealing marijuana, appellants Carson and Sweeney would help supply other members of the group. Perhaps predictably, appellants' drug-dealing was surrounded by a culture of violence and intimidation, which, according to the evidence introduced at trial, grew each year.

i. 1989.

The widespread violence that runs through this case begins in 1989 with the murder of Larry Wright, a victim in a drug-dealing turf war. A local dealer, Andre Murray, testified at trial that he and Tyrone Brawner sold drugs together at First and P Streets, Southwest, while appellant Hill, along with Wayne Perry, sold drugs in another part of the K Street neighborhood. In the beginning of the summer of 1989, Murray testified, Wright was released from prison and resumed dealing drugs, but did so on what Murray and Hill viewed as the wrong side of K Street. A short time later, on the evening of June 29, 1989, Murray heard gunshots fired and saw Hill at the corner of First and O Streets, Southwest, running away. Larry Wright had been murdered.1

Several murders followed. In late 1989, Carson, along with another K Street dealer who cooperated with the government, James Montgomery, murdered Maurice Hallman as revenge for a previous fight. According to Montgomery, while Montgomery was "hustling" on Delaware Avenue, Southwest, Hallman punched him, at first in a playful manner and in an effort to show off to appellant Hill. Montgomery asked Hallman to stop. When he did not, Montgomery "put [his] stash down and . . . came back and . . . hit him . . . to the body hard." Hallman, Montgomery testified, "got mad" and hit Montgomery on the head with a gun. That altercation prompted Montgomery to tell Hallman, in front of several witnesses, that he was "going to get him." Appellant Carson chided Montgomery for having "threatened [Hallman] in front of other people" and suggested that "if something happened to [Hallman], then [Montgomery] would be the first one they would come and get." Montgomery then apologized to Hallman in front of "everybody" so "everybody could see that [they] made up."

That apology did not go far. Montgomery killed Hallman on December 19, 1989. According to his own testimony, Montgomery was in possession of Hallman's gun and used it to lure him to an alley— "somewhere where [he] could kill him." Carson accompanied Montgomery. Another individual, Leonard Hyson, was present and would not leave, despite Carson's request that Hyson "go ahead about his business." Montgomery shot Hallman until he ran out of bullets. When he was done, he saw Hyson lying on the ground, with Carson walking away. Montgomery later told Carson that when he was shooting Hallman, he had not heard Carson's gun go off. Carson told him "that's because he's sharp" and that "he hit [Hyson] in the head six times before he hit the ground."2

ii. 1990.

Norman Yusuf Simmons, then only fifteen years-old, was kidnapped by appellant Coates and other individuals on April 28, 1990. Simmons was riding a bike in a park when two individuals approached him with semi-automatic weapons. They forced Simmons into a car, drove him to a mall, and eventually to an apartment complex. Simmons was placed into a trunk, and then into a second car. He was driven to another apartment, asked at gunpoint for contact information from his family, and then put in a closet. Simmons was eventually taken to a wooded area and bound with black electrical tape. Thereafter, his captors brought him to a parking lot, where he was informed that his family had paid a ransom.

iii. 1991.

In 1991, appellant Carson stored an AK-47 and other guns at the home of Teresa Thomas, with whom he was in a romantic relationship. Seventeen year-old Teresa lived with two infant daughters, her eighteen year-old sister Terita Lucas, and another woman, Crystal Bobbitt. Carson asked Thomas to return the AK-47, but according to Montgomery, Thomas "kept giving [Carson] excuses" about the gun. Appellant Martin accused Carson of "going soft over a broad" and suggested that Thomas was "going to end up letting [Carson] get killed by his own gun." The father of one of Thomas's daughters was a man from the 5th and O Street neighborhood, and apparently Martin was concerned that this man would take Carson's guns from Thomas's apartment and use them against him. Carson told Bobbitt that he did not "trust" the man having "a gun on him" and thus "had to stay strapped" when he visited. Bobbitt saw about five guns stored in a bag under Thomas's bed.3

On March 22, 1991, Bobbitt returned to the apartment after having spent the previous night with family in Maryland. Entering with her child, she saw what appeared to be "all this juice in the room," and soon discovered that she was, in fact, seeing not juice, but blood. Bobbitt found Thomas dead, with Thomas's daughter still alive under Thomas's body. Bobbitt ran to seek help. Police officers arrived to find Thomas and Lucas dead, with three young children alive in the apartment. There were no signs of a forced entry. Pictures of Carson that had been in the apartment were missing.

According to Montgomery, Carson initially denied being responsible for the double murder. Later, Carson described to Montgomery what happened. Carson went to Thomas's apartment and "kept asking her about the gun," and Thomas "kept on saying that she'll get the gun for him, but she couldn't get it right now because it was behind a lot of stuff, and she didn't want to wake her kids up." Thomas "kept giving him excuses," and so Carson went to the bathroom, came out, and "shot her in the head." Next, he murdered Lucas. Lucas was in her bed, and as she was "lifting up, and before she opened her eyes," Carson "shot her in the head, and she just laid back down." Carson then fled to a waiting car driven by Clifton Edwards.

Carson shot and killed Anthony Fortune in August 1991, after a dispute between Martin, Carson, and Fortune in a craps game. Carson described the killing to Montgomery, recalling that he had shot Fortune and after Fortune fell Carson "went over top of him [sic] and hit him some more." A witness saw Martin and Carson earlier, and heard Martin talking about how he "didn't like Tony Fortune robbing people, and [how Fortune] would kill your mother." Later that evening, the witness saw Carson "walking towards Tony Fortune, shooting." Carson "then stood over [the] top of him and shot him."4

Curtis Buchmon, a friend and associate of appellants Martin and Carson, was murdered on September 3, 1991. Appellants Martin and Carson, along with others, believed that Buchmon was killed in retaliation for Fortune's murder. Martin, Montgomery, and others engaged in an initial unsuccessful attempt to, from Montgomery's perspective, go "shoot somebody" and "get some get-back for them killing" Buchmon. They ended up shooting at a white minivan, but fled after the van sped off. On September 10, 1991, their next attempt to seek revenge ended in a shootout with the MPD. The group found two people they were looking for, but their targets began to run away. Soon thereafter, a car passed the group's van, and began shooting at them. But Montgomery saw more shots coming at them from another direction. Someone who looked like a security guard was shooting at Martin, and Martin, along with other occupants of the van, returned fire.

The "security guard" was one of four MPD officers who witnessed the shoot-out and returned fire into the van. Police found the van abandoned in the 1300 block of 45th Place, Southeast, riddled with bullet holes. A D.C. driver's permit issued to "Jerome Martle," apparently belonging to appellant Jerome Martin, was found in the driver's side door. Police found six sets of fingerprints in the van, three of which matched the known fingerprints of Montgomery and appellants Martin and Carson.

iv. 1992.

Several months later, there was yet another shooting. When appellant Coates heard that a man named Michael Jones was planning to testify against one of Coates's associates, Coates told others that "we need to get him." Coates, along with other individuals, shot Jones multiple times on June 28, 1992. Jones survived.

v. 1993.

Coates, Sweeney, and others continued to engage in violent acts during 1993. At about 2:00 a.m. in the early morning hours of a day in October 1993, a resident of Oxon Hill, Maryland was awakened to the sound of four individuals outside. When she looked out her window, she saw four men arguing with Anthony Pryor, who was in a truck. The men demanded that Pryor get out of the truck. When Pryor complied, the men began to fight him. Pryor started to run, until he was shot twice by one of the assailants and kidnapped. The witness did not know the identity of the kidnappers, but saw the door to the trunk of the assailants' car left in the street after they fled with the victim. A witness living at the Arthur Cappers housing complex in the District of Columbia testified that at around 3:00 a.m. he heard noises outside. He saw a car pull up with appellant Sweeney and other individuals in it. The car "had no trunk." Sweeney and others got out, took off their clothes, and tossed them into a trash can. Police arrived to find the car without a trunk door and various items around it. There were bloodstains on the rear bumper, and clothing items, car parts, and duct tape were scattered all around. Fingerprints from appellant Coates were found on the car. Coates later told Montgomery that he and others "had robbed . . . somebody . . . and . . . put them in the trunk" and "the person they kidnapped" had "ended up breaking the trunk off the car."5

vi. 1994.

On September 26, 1994, a witness heard several gunshots fired outside his home on K Street and saw appellant Sweeney running away from a craps game with a gun in his hand. The witness went outside and saw Donnell Whitfield dying. Another government witness talked to Sweeney prior to Whitfield's death, and Sweeney indicated that Whitfield had "smacked him" at a club and that he planned to kill Whitfield because of that incident. Sweeney told the witness after the shooting that he had, in fact, killed Whitfield.6

vii. 1995.

K Street member Donald Nichols testified that in 1995 appellant Hill informed appellant Martin, along with Nichols, Switzer, Paul Franklin, and Gary Price, that James Coulter "needed to be killed because he was hot." Coulter was shot in May 1995. After Coulter was shot, Nichols heard Hill tell Martin that Martin "should have used two guns" and lament the fact that Martin's gun had jammed. Montgomery later heard Martin telling Coates and Carson, "they keep trying to push it on me," and that "they [were] trying to say that [Martin] had something to do with [Coulter] getting shot." Martin claimed, however, that "they can't prove it" because he "had a mask on." Martin attempted to discourage witnesses from testifying about the shooting of Coulter. Later, Hill told an MPD Detective that "all your snitches are going to die, including your little buddy who is over at the hospital now with four holes in him under the name of John Doe . . . in Room 2299." Coulter was in the hospital, registered under the name of John Doe, in what was supposed to have been an undisclosed room.

viii. 1996.

On June 26, 1996, a witness for the government standing in the 200 block of K Street saw Carson shoot Ulysses English. Another witness heard shots fired, saw English fall, and saw Carson running away. Carson was upset, Montgomery recounted at trial, that English told Buchmon's killers where Carson's mother resided. Carson told Montgomery that if Montgomery saw English in the K Street neighborhood, he should let him know, or, "if [Montgomery] s[aw] him in a good position, to hit him"—that is, to "kill him." When English survived, Carson told Montgomery that he did not think English "was going to snitch."

A few months later, on August 30, 1996, Demetrius Hunter was approached by Carson and Coates about where they could buy approximately seven pounds of marijuana. Hunter took Carson and Coates, along with Ronald Horns, to an apartment in Northeast Washington, D.C. The four went into the apartment and met individuals Hunter referred to as "a Jamaican named Mark" and "a Jamaican named Joe." Joe informed the group that he did not have all the marijuana they needed in the apartment and offered to get it from another location. Carson gave Joe $5,000 and left with Joe to retrieve the marijuana. The residents of the apartment started "playing" with firearms, according to Hunter, when Coates received a call from Carson. Carson informed Coates that he had been sitting in front of another apartment building waiting for Joe to return, but Joe was nowhere to be found. Carson returned with Raymond Washington, and Mark asked Carson and Washington to come back the next day. Mark, whose real name was Popa Mark Phillip, did not "know what's up with Joe" because Joe had "never do[ne] that before." But as the group began to head out, Carson pulled out a gun and opened fire on Mark and, Hunter recounted, "another Jamaican." Washington pulled out a gun as well. The group fled the building, but Washington continued to chase Mark outside and then shot him.

A robbery that year by K Street members resulted in the triple murders of Alonzo Gaskins, Darnell Mack, and Melody Anderson. Carson, Sweeney, and other K Street members went to Las Vegas in 1996 to see the Evander Holyfield/Mike Tyson boxing match. Carson saw Gaskins win about $50,000 in Las Vegas. Carson, Montgomery, and Sweeney discussed robbing Gaskins, hoping to get $250,000 and divide it three ways. They planned to use money from the Gaskins robbery to kill Thomas Fields and others from a nearby neighborhood on L Street.

Montgomery explained that the group conducted significant surveillance on Gaskins in Temple Hills, Maryland. Then, on the day of the attempted robbery, Sweeney brought a .40 caliber Glock firearm and a stun gun, and after further preparation, the group arrived at Gaskins's craps house. Montgomery and Sweeney jumped out of the group's van, but Coates stayed behind. Without attempting to rob Gaskins, Sweeney shot Gaskins, shot Mack, and then shot Anderson on his way out. When confronted by Montgomery as to why he started shooting everyone, Sweeney claimed that Gaskins was reaching for a weapon, which Montgomery disputed.7

A feud with individuals from L Street also developed in 1996. K Street member Charles Edwards was killed by L Street member Joey Simmons in July 1996 because Edwards had publicly expressed, according to a government witness, "where he could sell his weed," telling others that "nobody runs no blocks" and he "can sell this weed anywhere." Simmons and Ronald Sowells, another L Street member, were shot in response to Edwards's shooting. Appellants Hill and Carson, along with other K Street members, were also shot during the feud.

On October 30, 1996, Coates shot Sowells at the Anacostia Metro Station. An associate of Sowells, Eric Gordon, previously shot Coates's associate and co-defendant, Hill, and Sowells was now in the same car that he had used to drive Gordon to and from that shooting. Carson pulled up to Sowells's car and Coates began firing. Sowells returned fire until his gun jammed. Coates later admitted to Montgomery that he shot Sowells with Montgomery's gun.8

The year 1996 continued to be violent. K Street members attempted to kill several witnesses, resulting in one murder. During this time period, appellant Martin, along with Antonio Knight, had been arrested for murdering Curtis Edwards, who had been in a car with Keith Jones and Richard Burton. While in jail pending trial, Martin kept in contact with Paul Franklin. According to Franklin, in discussing the Edwards murder, Martin spoke "of two people, a female by the name of Robin, and a guy by the name of Flip." Martin wanted to know where Robin lived and wanted Franklin to pass that information on to Carson, which he did. Although Franklin was aware that Martin "wanted Robin dead" and that Robin was a witness at Martin's trial, Franklin testified that he showed Carson where Robin's home was. Montgomery also testified that Franklin told him Martin was trying to get in contact with Montgomery and needed Montgomery "to get on top of some witnesses for him."9 Carson enlisted Montgomery's help in murdering Flip, but they were ultimately unsuccessful.10

Appellant Carson was concerned, Montgomery recounted, that they "needed to stay on top" of "getting at these witnesses" and needed to "approach it like a full time job." One day, Carson picked up Montgomery, bought some gardening gloves at Safeway so they would not leave fingerprints, got his gun, and left to find Robin and one other witness, Chrissy. Carson and Montgomery went to 37th Place, where they heard Robin and Chrissy would be at a party, and went inside a vacant house to wait for their arrival. Chrissy, whose real name was Chrishauna Gladden, arrived with several friends. According to Montgomery, about an hour later when Chrissy left the party, Carson ran out, put his hood on, and fired several shots into Chrissy. Chrishauna Gladden died that night of October 5, 1996. An FBI Special Agent working on the Edwards case testified that other witnesses "were scared to death" after the murder of Gladden and several refused to testify. Martin and Knight were acquitted.

Around the same time, Maurice Proctor, indicted with appellants in this case, and Kenneth Adams were charged for a 1994 murder of Phil Clayborne, who was believed to be testifying against two K Street members. According to Arthur Rice, an inmate incarcerated with Proctor, Proctor suspected that now Adams "was cooperating [with the police] because he kept leaving the jail for no reason." After Adams was released from prison, Rice and Proctor got on the phone with Carson, who believed Adams was living in Northern Virginia.

As described by Montgomery, Carson eventually got Adams's phone number and was able to retrieve his address in Centreville, Virginia. Carson and Montgomery made six to eight trips to Centreville in planning and attempting to murder Adams, sometimes accompanied by Sweeney and Coates. Montgomery testified at trial about various attempts being thwarted.11 The K Street members' attempt on Adams's life eventually ended when a cooperating witness informed the government that the K Street group knew Adams was in Centreville and was planning to kill him.

ix. 1997.

K Street members sought to kill yet another government witness in 1997, but this time proved successful. When the FBI opened its investigation in 1995, Robert Smith, one of the main suppliers of marijuana to Southwest, was immediately a focus of the Bureau's inquiry. Smith was arrested after a sting operation and agreed to cooperate, describing for the FBI his drug-related activities and several crimes of violence committed by appellant Sweeney, his relative, and Sweeney's associates. An FBI Special Agent conducting the investigation testified that Smith and the Bureau tried "to make sure that nobody on the street thought that [Smith] was cooperating." That effort proved unsuccessful. After Sweeney was arrested for the triple murders in Temple Hills, he realized, according to Montgomery's testimony, that Smith was the only person he told about the murders. Carson told Montgomery that if the group "hit [Smith], then [the government] don't have no case, but eventually, they was going to come and get us, if we don't hit" Smith. After that, Carson and Montgomery would look for Smith when they were out and about in Southwest. Although they saw him a number of times, he was never alone.

On June 16, 1997, Carson borrowed Montgomery's car. Later, Montgomery heard that Smith had been shot on Half Street, Southwest. Carson returned that evening and, after discussing the fact that Smith had been killed, told Montgomery, "man, trust me, we're all right," and returned Montgomery's car keys. Carson directed Montgomery to stay away "from up Half Street" and "not to drive" the car if he "didn't have to." Smith was shot eleven times, seven of which were in the head.

B. Procedural Background.

On September 18, 1998, appellants and several others were indicted on counts of narcotics conspiracy, racketeering conspiracy, murder and other crimes of violence, narcotics trafficking, and weapons possession. Appellants moved to sever various counts and defendants, but their motions were denied. A jury trial commenced on November 15, 2000 and deliberations began on July 9, 2001. The district court dismissed pursuant to Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 23(b)(3) one juror, which appellants challenge on appeal. Throughout July and August 2001, the jury returned guilty verdicts against appellants on numerous counts and not guilty verdicts on several counts, and found some racketeering acts proven and others not proven. Each appellant moved for a new trial or sought to join a co-defendant's motion for a new trial. The district court denied appellants' motions. Appellants filed timely notices of appeal, invoking our jurisdiction to review the judgments of conviction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1291.

First, each of the five appellants challenges his conviction on the grounds that the district court erred in dismissing Juror No. 3 during deliberations and in permitting the remaining eleven jurors to deliberate to verdict pursuant to Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 23(b). At the time of the trial, Rule 23(b) (since amended12) provided in relevant part:

(b) Jury of Less than Twelve. Juries shall be of 12 but at any time before verdict the parties may stipulate in writing with the approval of the court that the jury shall consist of any number less than 12 or that a valid verdict may be returned by a jury of less than 12 should the court find it necessary to excuse one or more jurors for any just cause after trial commences. Even absent such stipulation, if the court finds it necessary to excuse a juror for just cause after the jury has retired to consider its verdict, in the discretion of the court a valid verdict may be returned by the remaining 11 jurors.

The district court's decision under this rule to dismiss a juror or to continue with an eleven-member jury is reviewed for abuse of discretion. See United States v. Ginyard, 444 F.3d 648, 651 (D.C.Cir.2006) (dismissal of juror); United States v. Harrington, 108 F.3d 1460, 1472 (D.C.Cir. 1997) (eleven-juror verdict). We conclude the district court did not abuse its discretion in dismissing Juror No. 3 and permitting the remaining eleven jurors to continue deliberating to verdict.

The jury began deliberations on July 9, 2001 and the district court dismissed the alternate jurors at that time. On Thursday July 19, 2001 the judge informed counsel he had learned from U.S. Deputy Marshall Terry Adams that Juror No. 3 had "transported himself to the Veterans Administration Hospital with symptoms of chest pains and a tingling sensation in one arm, which were to him sufficiently suggestive that he was having coronary problems." 7/19/01am Tr. 3. The court also told counsel that Deputy Adams was going to the hospital to "try to ascertain more information about the situation" and then excused the jury until the following Monday, July 23, when "hopefully they w[ould] be able to resume their deliberations . . . with Juror Number 3 present." Id. at 4. He stated that, if Juror No. 3 was not present when the jury returned on July 23, he would ask the parties to stipulate to proceeding with an eleven-person jury but, "failing such a stipulation," he would "exercise [his] prerogative under Rule 23(b) to have the jury of 11 continue to deliberate and take their verdict." Id. He then explained the situation to the other jurors and excused them until Monday morning. On Monday morning, Juror No. 3 was present and deliberations continued.

On Tuesday July 24, 2001 the judge assembled counsel and placed Deputy Adams on the witness stand to describe "difficulties . . . with respect to Juror No. 3." 7/24/01pm Tr. 4. Adams testified that, after Juror No. 3 left for the hospital the previous Thursday, Juror No. 17 informed Adams that "in the last couple of weeks" Juror No. 3 told her "he had experienced some mental health issues in the past and had been treated for them" and that "he was experiencing difficulty with his supervisor" about not reporting to work on days the jurors were not in court. Id. at 4-5. Juror No. 3 had also informed Juror No. 17, Adams recounted, that he "bought a `thing' and planned to do `her' — an unidentified `her' — and himself." Id. at 5. She explained to Adams that she "took the word `thing' to mean `gun.'" Id. In response to Adams's questioning of her, Juror No. 17 further explained she had not reported the conversation earlier because she was "scared." Id. at 6. Later the same day (the previous Thursday), Adams testified, Juror No. 3 called Adams from his cell phone and reported he had seen a doctor and had a "secondary appointment for that afternoon in the same hospital" in the "mental hygiene unit." Id. at 6. At the judge's request, Adams then drove to the hospital and brought Juror No. 3 back to the courthouse for questioning. At this point the judge interrupted Adams's testimony to state on the record that upon his return to the courthouse on Thursday, Juror No. 3 admitted he had not experienced chest pains and arm tingling, as he had informed Adams, but had "personal problems," which "were, to a certain extent, being exacerbated by pressure from his supervisor to work when he was not on jury service." Id. at 7. Juror No. 3 assured the court, however, he was prepared to return to deliberate on Monday.

Adams resumed his testimony and stated that earlier that Tuesday afternoon he received a phone call from a member of his staff advising that Juror No. 3 wished to see the courthouse nurse. The nurse checked the juror's vital signs and reported they were normal. Later that afternoon, Adams was again approached by Juror No. 17, accompanied this time by Juror No. 1, the foreman. The two jurors "relayed some concern about Juror No. 3's health and overall well-being" and informed Adams that "everyone on the jury had the same concern." Id. at 9. When they asked Adams to relay their concerns to the judge, he told them they should write a note and he would deliver it to the judge. They expressed reluctance because they were "receiving pressure from Juror Number 3 not to do so," explaining that he "was making comments referencing homicide, and suicide and certain violent tendencies." Id. Adams repeated that they should communicate to the judge through a written note, which they did shortly before the judge summoned counsel. The judge informed counsel that the note stated "in essence": "We wish to speak to you directly on a matter of considerable importance, and we wish to do so right away." Id. at 10. It was signed by Juror No. 1 and Juror No. 17. After informing counsel of the note, the judge brought Juror No. 1 and Juror No. 17 into the courtroom.

The judge asked Juror No. 1 to act as "spokesperson." 7/24/02pm Tr. 10. Juror No. 1 expressed concern that because of "external factors, his job and other concerns that are mounting on him to the point that he is visibly despondent and is concerned for his safety," Juror No. 3 was "just not contributing to the deliberations" and was "not fully there as far as being involved with the deliberations." Id. at 11-12. Juror No. 17 stated in turn that Juror No. 3 admitted he was "having problems staying focused because of problems with his job." Id. at 12. Both jurors responded affirmatively when the judge asked: "If [Juror No. 3] were to be excused from further deliberations, do you think that you would be able to progress more rapidly with respect to reaching a verdict?" Id. at 12.

The following morning, Wednesday July 25, 2001, defense counsel requested that the court "bring Juror Number 3 out individually and have the court conduct somewhat of an open-ended voir dire of the juror" to determine whether the testimony regarding his conduct was accurate. 7/25/01am Tr. 4-5. They also informed the court that "on the state of this record" they were "opposing the striking of this juror." Id. at 5. The government suggested recalling Adams to put on the record various disclosures Juror No. 3 had made to him (as recounted by Adams in a conversation with government counsel the preceding evening)—specifically that Juror No. 3 had had a drinking problem, had taken trazodone hydrochloride, a medication administered for depression, had recently been in possession of a gun and lived in a neighborhood with a crime problem—which admissions, the government argued, were "directly at odds with what he revealed in his jury questionnaire." Id. at 6.

Adams returned to the witness stand and confirmed that Juror No. 3 had made the disclosures the government identified. He also expanded on his conversation the day before with Juror No. 1 and Juror No. 17, testifying they told him Juror No. 3 had warned them they "had better not write a note" to the judge and "had better not turn him in." Id. at 10. Juror No. 17, who was "animated and agitated," told Adams she took the warning as a "threat" and was "scared to write a note." Id. at 11. Adams further testified that, during his conversation with the two jurors, Juror No. 3 "kept running back and forth" between the jury room and where Adams was speaking with the other two jurors, urging them to continue deliberating. Id. One of the other two jurors—Adams was not sure which—told Juror No. 3 he "need[ed] to take care of this matter" and Juror No. 3 "started talking about his supervisor at work," repeating "she is just messing, she is just messing with me." Id. at 11-12. Then, getting "real agitated," he said "I just want to hit something" and made a motion in the air with his arm as if to do just that. Id. at 12.

After questioning Adams, defense counsel sought to question Juror No. 1 and Juror No. 17 to determine whether the latter had expressed fear of Juror No. 3, whether Juror No. 3 was in fact having difficulty participating in deliberations and, if so, whether the difficulty was the result of a personality conflict or of differing views of the case. When the judge declined, defense counsel asked that the judge question Juror No. 3 on whether he felt he could meaningfully participate in the deliberations. The judge denied this request as well, explaining that he had "already asked that of him in chambers when he was brought . . . from the hospital" and "notwithstanding his own belief to the effect that he can participate, that, in fact, he cannot." Id. at 41.

When Juror No. 3 was brought to the courtroom, the judge questioned him briefly about the subjects earlier noted by the government. Juror No. 3 acknowledged that (1) "as of last Thursday" he was "a patient at the mental hygiene unit at the V.A. Hospital" and that he was taking trazodone prescribed for him there; (2) "in years past" he had had a "drinking problem," (3) he had recently kept a firearm for his brother, who was homeless, and (4) he lived in "a generally bad neighborhood." Id. at 47-49. Juror No. 3 then left the courtroom. After brief argument by defense counsel opposing dismissal, the judge announced: "I am going to exercise discretion under Rule 23(b), and I'm going to excuse Juror Number 3 from further participation." Id. at 50. The judge then brought Juror No. 3 into the courtroom and informed him he was dismissed. The remaining jurors were summoned and told that Juror No. 3 had been excused "for primarily concerns . . . with respect to his health." Id. at 54. The judge then expressed the "hope" that the remaining 11 jurors would, "with a fair degree of alacrity, be able to reach a verdict." Id. at 54. The eleven remaining jurors resumed deliberating and returned verdicts against all of the defendants (but not on all of the counts) over a ten-day period from July 26 to August 15, 2001.

Each defendant filed a motion for mistrial based on the dismissal of Juror No. 3. The court denied the motions in an order filed August 16, 2001. The order states in part:

Notwithstanding his expressed willingness to continue his service as juror, in light of his deceptive answers to voir dire questions the Court was unwilling to credit Juror No. 3's assurances that he was able to do so, and in conjunction with the testimony of the jury foreman and the female juror in whom Juror No. 3 had confided, the Court concluded that just cause existed to dismiss Juror No. 3.

United States v. Hill, Crim. Action No. 98-329, at 4 (D.D.C. filed Aug. 16, 2001) (8/16/01 Mem. & Order). In the order the court specifically found that Juror No. 3 had "given incorrect answers" on his voir dire questionnaire when he answered "in the negative" questions "about personal or familial alcohol abuse, mental health medications, firearm possession and neighborhood crime problems" because the juror had "in the past, abused alcohol," had "recently been in possession of a firearm," lived in a "crime-ridden neighborhood" and was "currently taking the anti-depressant medication for a mental condition that he shares with his brothers." Id. at 4, 3 & n. 4; see also Joint Appendix 967-71 (Juror No. 3 questionnaire responses). The appellants offer six grounds for reversing the district court's decisions to dismiss Juror No. 3 and proceed with an 11-member jury under Rule 23. We address and reject each ground seriatim.

First, the appellants argue that the court failed to make an adequate inquiry into Juror No. 3's fitness to continue deliberating, noting specifically that, because the judge questioned Juror No. 3 in camera, there is no record evidence to support a finding of "just cause" to dismiss him. In pressing this challenge, the appellants rely on two decisions which we find distinguishable.

In United States v. Patterson, 26 F.3d 1127 (D.C.Cir.1994), this court held that the district judge erred in dismissing a 68-year-old juror who had gone to the doctor after complaining of chest pains and had been absent for 2½ hours. There we concluded that the record revealed no just cause for the dismissal because the district judge "made no attempt to learn the precise circumstances or likely duration of the twelfth juror's absence." Patterson, 26 F.3d at 1129. In United States v. Ginyard, 444 F.3d 648 (D.C.Cir.2006),13 we found a similar lapse in the district court's juror investigation. The judge there dismissed the juror on the ground that his continued service the following week might jeopardize an employment opportunity available to him through a rehabilitation program. We concluded that "the district court's reasons for dismissing [the juror] rested on unexamined uncertainties about the extent of the juror's continuing availability" because it "was unclear whether [the juror] could be available the following week at all, for only a couple of days, or for a longer period of time." Ginyard, 444 F.3d at 654. Under the circumstances the district court "was obliged to make some further effort to resolve the uncertainty about the risk of loss of the holdout juror's job in order to find `good cause' necessitated the juror's dismissal." Id. at 655. In contrast to these two cases, the district court here conducted an extensive examination of Juror No. 3's fitness. He questioned Deputy Marshal Adams, Juror No. 1, Juror No. 17 and Juror No. 3. Although Juror No. 3's initial examination occurred off the record, the judge recited its content on the record at the hearing the following Tuesday. In the end, there were simply no factual "uncertainties" requiring additional inquiry.14

Second, the appellants claim that there is no basis for the court's "finding that Juror No. 3 was, in effect, mentally incapable of continuing to participate in the deliberative process," contending that such a finding requires more detailed evidence of a juror's mental condition than exists in this record. Br. of Appellants 35. The district court, however, did not dismiss Juror No. 3 based on mental incapacity. The court relied on a combination of factors—including that Juror No. 3 had lied about his symptoms before visiting the hospital, provided inaccurate voir dire responses about mental health treatment and was, according to Juror No. 1 and Juror No. 17, distracted and unfocused (and even threatening) during deliberations. These findings are amply supported by the evidence. See 8/16/01 Mem. & Order.

Third, the appellants claim that the trial judge improperly dismissed Juror No. 3 because he was impeding conviction. We reject this contention as well. It is true that the trial court "may not dismiss a juror during deliberations if the request for discharge stems from doubts the juror harbors about the sufficiency of the government's evidence." United States v. Brown, 823 F.2d 591, 596 (D.C.Cir.1987). As a consequence, "if the record evidence discloses any possibility that the request to discharge stems from the juror's view of the sufficiency of the government's evidence, the court must deny the request." Id. (citing United States v. Essex, 734 F.2d 832, 843 (D.C.Cir.1984); United States v. Stratton, 779 F.2d 820, 832 (2d Cir.1985), cert. denied, 476 U.S. 1162, 106 S.Ct. 2285, 90 L.Ed.2d 726 (1986)). The evidence in this case supports no such inference notwithstanding the appellants' contention that "there is a probability—a reasonable likelihood—that Juror 3's dismissal for allegedly deceptive answers on his jury questionnaire was a pretext to obtain a quicker verdict." Br. of Appellants 44. The judge plainly stated his reasons for the dismissal and they had nothing to do with the juror's view of the case. The judge did not believe Juror No. 3 could "continue his service as juror" in light of "his deceptive answers to voir dire questions" and the testimony, described above, of Adams and the two jurors who were empaneled with him. 8/16/01 Mem. & Order at 4. There is no evidence the judge was motivated by Juror No. 3's "view of the sufficiency of the government's evidence." Brown, 823 F.2d at 596. The judge was scrupulous to counsel Jurors No. 1 and 17 not to reveal "how [they] may be split any way on the verdict" or "anything about [their] deliberations on the merits of the case or who may have voted what way," 7/24/01pm Tr. 10-11, and they did not. Nor is there any suggestion in the record that the judge had the least inkling of Juror No. 3's views regarding innocence or guilt. What the record shows is that Juror No. 3 was viewed by his fellow jurors as an obstacle to deliberations because he was "having problems staying focused." Id. at 12. In Brown, by contrast, we found that the record "indicate[d] a substantial possibility that [the dismissed juror] requested to be discharged because he believed that the evidence offered at trial was inadequate to support a conviction," based on his statements that "his difficulty was with `the way [the law is] written and the way the evidence has been presented'" and that "`[i]f the evidence was presented in a fashion in which the law is written, then, maybe, [he] would be able to discharge [his] duties.'" 823 F.2d at 596-97 (emphasis by Brown court; alterations to last clause added).

Fourth, the appellants object to the court's finding that Juror No. 3's voir dire responses on the questionnaire were "deceptive." 8/16/01 Mem. & Order at 4. They argue first that the United States Supreme Court's decision in McDonough Power Equipment, Inc. v. Greenwood, 464 U.S. 548, 556, 104 S.Ct. 845, 78 L.Ed.2d 663 (1984), "requires that there be a showing that the juror failed to answer honestly a material question arising during voir dire and that a correct response would have provided a valid basis for a challenge for cause." Br. of Appellants 46. The appellants' reliance on McDonough Power Equipment is misplaced. In that case the Supreme Court reversed a Tenth Circuit decision that ordered a new trial in a personal injury case because a juror gave a "mistaken, though honest response to a question" regarding injuries suffered by family members.15 464 U.S. at 555, 104 S.Ct. 845. The Court concluded that "to obtain a new trial" based on a juror's voir dire misstatement, a party must "show that a correct response would have provided a valid basis for a challenge for cause." Id. at 556, 104 S.Ct. 845. Here the judge did not rely on the voir dire misstatements as a basis for dismissal but only to explain, in part, why he did not credit Juror No. 3's assurance that he could continue to deliberate notwithstanding evidence to the contrary.

The appellants also assert the trial court's "deceptive" finding is unsupported but the record belies this claim. Adams's testimony regarding his conversation with Juror No. 3 supports the judge's findings that, contrary to his voir dire responses, Juror No. 3 abused alcohol, handled a gun, lived in a dangerous neighborhood and had received mental health treatment. According to Adams, Juror No. 3 disclosed to Adams that he (1) "used to drink real bad," "really hit that bottle" and "had a problem" before he quit drinking 13 years earlier, 7/25/01am Tr. 15; (2) was "on trazodone," which is "used to treat depression," id. at 19-20; (3) "used to have a `thing,'" meaning a .44 magnum revolver, id. at 16; and (4) had the revolver because he "lived in a real bad neighborhood, and he had been robbed at gunpoint," id. Further, the testimony of Juror No. 3 himself confirmed each of these facts. See id. at 47-49.16

Fifth, the appellants argue summarily that, even if there was good cause to dismiss Juror No. 3, the court should have declared a mistrial rather than proceed with jury deliberations. We find no error in the judge's decision to continue. As we stated in United States v. Harrington, 108 F.3d 1460 (D.C.Cir.1997): "Rule 23(b) explicitly and without reservation assigns the stop/go decision to the discretion of the trial court. . . ." 108 F.3d at 1472. Having already concluded the judge acted within his discretion in dismissing Juror No. 3 for cause, we perceive no abuse of discretion in his decision to continue with an 11-member jury, especially given the trial's length and complexity. See id. (noting Advisory Committee notes to Rule 23 suggest if trial is "a relatively short and simple one . . . , a trial court `might well' decide that a mistrial is appropriate, while for longer and more complex trials courts would be `more likely' to decide against a mistrial" (quoting Fed.R.Crim.P. 23 Advisory Comm. note to 1983 amendments)).

Finally, the appellants assert that the judge's and Adams's ex parte contacts with the jurors violated the appellants' rights under the United States Constitution's Fifth Amendment Due Process Clause and Sixth Amendment's Confrontation Clause and under Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 43. We reject this argument as well. We are inclined to agree with the government that these claims are governed by plain error review because, although defense counsel sought to examine the jurors further, they made no objection specifically based on the ex parte nature of the communications between the jurors and Adams and the judge. See United States v. Yarborough, 400 F.3d 17, 20 (D.C.Cir.2005) (because defense counsel did not object to "judge's ex parte conversation with the deliberating jurors," "[p]lain error is . . . the standard of review" (citing United States v. Lancaster, 968 F.2d 1250, 1254 (D.C.Cir.1992))). Nonetheless, even if defense counsel can be said to have properly objected, we find no reversible error. "`[T]he mere occurrence of an ex parte conversation between a trial judge and a juror does not constitute a deprivation of any constitutional right. The defense has no constitutional right to be present at every interaction between a judge and a juror, nor is there a constitutional right to have a court reporter transcribe every such communication.'" United States v. Gagnon, 470 U.S. 522, 526, 105 S.Ct. 1482, 84 L.Ed.2d 486 (1985) (quoting Rushen v. Spain, 464 U.S. 114, 125-26, 104 S.Ct. 453, 78 L.Ed.2d 267 (1983) (Stevens, J., concurring in judgment)) (alteration in original). Counsel's presence is necessary only if required "to ensure fundamental fairness or a `reasonably substantial . . . opportunity to defend against the charge.'" Id. at 527, 105 S.Ct. 1482 (quoting Snyder v. Massachusetts, 291 U.S. 97, 105-06, 54 S.Ct. 330, 78 L.Ed. 674 (1934)). Because the ex parte conversations were unrelated to the merits of the case and their substance was reported in open court in the presence of the defendants and their counsel, they did not constitute error. In addition, even if the ex parte conversations with the judge were error, they were harmless and do not warrant reversal. See United States v. Gordon, 829 F.2d 119, 127 & n. 9 (D.C.Cir. 1987) (violation of statutory and constitutional rights to be present during jury contact "subject to the harmless error analysis." (citations omitted)); cf. United States v. McDonald, 933 F.2d 1519, 1525 (D.C.Cir.1991) (ex parte communication between judge and juror not plain error where defense counsel made no objection and hearing was held at which trial court made full disclosure). This is particularly so as to Juror No. 3's conversations as his subsequent dismissal from the jury ensures that his ex parte contacts with the court did not taint the verdicts. Cf. United States v. Doherty, 867 F.2d 47, 72 (1st Cir.1989) (judge's ex parte conversation with subsequently dismissed juror "could not have influenced the excused juror's further deliberations, for there were none; nor could it have influenced the remaining eleven jurors, because the excused juror had no further contact with them"); United States v. Lustig, 555 F.2d 737, 745-46 (9th Cir.1977) (finding no prejudice from judge's ex parte interview with juror subsequently dismissed and replaced by alternate).

The appellants also seek reversal of their convictions on the ground that the district court's conduct of the trial proceedings displayed what they characterize as "an extensive pattern of bias and lack of even-handedness that infected the entire nine-month proceeding" and that the judge's obvious bias prevented them from receiving a fair trial. Br. of Appellants 51. We disagree. "The threshold for a showing of bias is high," United States v. Edmond, 52 F.3d 1080, 1099 (D.C.Cir.) (per curiam), cert. denied, 516 U.S. 998, 116 S.Ct. 539, 133 L.Ed.2d 443 (1995), and we do not believe the appellants have reached it because the conduct they cite does not "reveal such a high degree of favoritism or antagonism as to make fair judgment impossible." Liteky v. United States, 510 U.S. 540, 555, 114 S.Ct. 1147, 127 L.Ed.2d 474 (1994).17 In asserting bias, the appellants identify three broad categories of conduct. We address each in turn.

First, the appellants object to discrete, allegedly biased rulings by the trial judge which (1) set the timing of disclosure of exculpatory material under Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83, 83 S.Ct. 1194, 10 L.Ed.2d 215 (1963), and of witness statements to the government under the Jencks Act, 18 U.S.C. § 3500; (2) denied defense motions to strike jurors for cause; (3) overruled defense objections to hearsay and opinion testimony of government witnesses and excluded as hearsay testimony of a defense witness; and (4) limited the scope of defense cross-examination. But "judicial rulings alone almost never constitute a valid basis for a bias or partiality motion." Liteky, 510 U.S. at 555, 114 S.Ct. 1147 (citing United States v. Grinnell Corp., 384 U.S. 563, 583, 86 S.Ct. 1698, 16 L.Ed.2d 778 (1966)). "Almost invariably, they are proper grounds for appeal, not for recusal." Id. "In and of themselves (i.e., apart from surrounding comments or accompanying opinion), they . . . can only in the rarest circumstances evidence the degree of favoritism or antagonism required when no extrajudicial source is involved." Id. The isolated unfavorable rulings the appellants cite in the course of a trial proceeding lasting some nine months do not constitute such "rare circumstances." Nor does the fact that the judge may have ruled in favor of the government more often than he did in favor of the defense, as the appellants contend, by itself show bias. See Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1100 ("Appellants do not claim that a greater percentage of government requests than defense requests were granted, but even if that were the case such a disproportion would be insufficient by itself to establish bias." (citing United States v. Pisani, 773 F.2d 397, 402 (2d Cir.1985) ("[A] trial judge must rule on countless objections, and a simple numerical tally of those sustained and overruled, one which here favors the government, is not enough to establish that the scales of justice were tipped against a defendant."))). The record here does not show that the judge did so disproportionately or unjustifiably.

Second, the appellants cite allegedly biased procedural decisions by the trial judge during both voir dire and trial. Initially, we note that the appellants have not appealed any of the individual procedures as error by itself but instead assert that cumulatively (and in conjunction with rulings and comments) they show impermissible bias. We do not agree.

The appellants object to a number of procedures the judge adopted during voir dire: empaneling an anonymous jury, having the United States Marshals Service transport jurors to the courthouse from undisclosed locations, moving the defendants to distant sites, refusing to permit the defendants to change from prison garb to civilian dress on the first day of jury selection and limiting defense counsel's interrogation of prospective jurors. Addressing the last first, "`the trial court retains great latitude in deciding what questions should be asked on voir dire'" and his "administration of this process `is not easily subject to appellate review.'" Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1094-95 (quoting Mu'Min v. Virginia, 500 U.S. 415, 424, 111 S.Ct. 1899, 114 L.Ed.2d 493 (1991)). We will not second-guess the judge's decision here to accelerate the jury selection process by abbreviating questioning. As for the first three procedures, such precautionary steps to safeguard the jury are often taken in cases such as this involving allegations of racketeering, violence and, especially, witness or juror tampering. Cf. Holbrook v. Flynn, 475 U.S. 560, 570-71, 106 S.Ct. 1340, 89 L.Ed.2d 525 (1986) (finding no significant prejudice in courtroom security force consisting of "four uniformed state troopers, two Deputy Sheriffs, and six Committing Squad officers"); Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1091 (upholding use of anonymous jury where defendants were "the primary participants in a large-scale criminal organization that distributed massive amounts of cocaine in Washington, D.C., and used violent acts to achieve its goals," "had the capacity to harm jurors" and "faced penalties that are among the harshest the law can impose" and the prosecution "attracted substantial pretrial publicity that the District Court understandably expected to continue throughout the trial");18 United States v. Darden, 70 F.3d 1507, 1532-34 (8th Cir.1995) (upholding anonymous jury, large number of security personnel in courtroom, two magnetometers at courtroom entrance, inspections of defense counsel's belongings, assembling jury in secret location, transporting jurors and defendants to and from courthouse in U.S. Marshal vans and using armed guards along street, convoy of police vehicles, helicopter surveillance and rooftop snipers). Further, the record indicates that each of the measures taken by the district court was motivated by legitimate safety concerns. See 9/27/00am Tr. 181-82 (anonymous jury necessary to protect jurors although court was "concerned" about its effect on jury); 11/13/00am Tr. 49 ("events since the last motions hearing" justified safety concerns generally and jury transport in particular); 11/17/00pm Tr. 19-21 (testimony of Deputy Marshal Adams that distant detention was necessitated by "security concerns" he was "not authorized to disclose"). Finally, we come to the judge's directive that the defendants were to remain in their prison attire if they wished to be present in the courtroom while the jurors completed their questionnaires on the first day of voir dire. See 11/15/00am Tr. 4. Although we discern no explanation for this requirement in the appellate record, we likewise find no indication it was motivated by bias.19

With regard to the trial itself, the appellants object in particular to restrictions the court imposed on defense counsel's use of testimony of government witnesses, such as limiting "collateral impeachment" (for bias, prejudice, motive, inconsistent statements, etc.) to one defense counsel per witness, 2/6/01am Tr. 4-5; permitting only one defense counsel to argue each objection at the bench, 2/14/01pm Tr. 17; and imposing short time limits on defense counsel's cross-examination of two witnesses, 1/22/01pm Tr. 48-49, 4/26/01am Tr. 34-35. "[A] district judge has wide discretion in monitoring the flow of a criminal trial." United States v. Donato, 99 F.3d 426, 434 (D.C.Cir.1996). It is plain that the challenged restrictions (imposed, in the main, outside the jury's presence) were attempts to exercise this discretion in order to conduct a lengthy, complex trial in an orderly, efficient manner, avoiding to the extent possible repetitious and irrelevant testimony. See 2/06/01am Tr. 5 (collateral impeachment rule designed to avoid repetition); 2/14/01pm 17 (regarding one-counsel-per-objection policy, explaining judge did not "want everybody up here at the bench" and if non-arguing counsel had something he wanted co-counsel "to impart," he should "whisper it in her ear or his ear"); 1/22/01pm Tr. 49 (regarding 10-minute limit for Martin's counsel, judge observed that witness ("the first witness of what is going to be a long trial") had given only "summary testimony" and "most of what [counsel was] interrogating about . . . has nothing to do with the scope of his direct examination"20); 4/26/01am Tr. 34, 35 (regarding 15-minute limit for Hill's counsel, judge noted counsel's cross-examination of hearsay witness related to what happened rather than what witness heard and was "delaying the proceeding with largely irrelevant and protracted examination"). While these attempts to control the trial may have seemed sharp and constraining at times, they do not manifest bias.

This brings us to the third alleged basis for finding bias: negative comments by the trial judge. As examples, the appellants point to a series of comments made during voir dire that, to them, manifested the judge's belief that defense counsel was attempting to disqualify qualified witnesses. See, e.g., 11/29/00pm Tr. 37 (counsel's function is not "[t]o badger a prospective juror into giving answers that would disqualify her"); id. at 38 ("[S]ome counsel are seriously encroaching upon improper voir dire. I observe again, your function is not to intimidate the prospective juror into giving an answer that you hope will operate to disqualify that juror."); 11/30/00pm Tr. 47 (characterizing counsel's question as "inappropriate"); 12/04/00am Tr. 73 (telling counsel he was "arguing with the juror"); 12/05/00pm Tr. 39 (counsel's questions "invite[d] [prospective juror] to take advantage of the possibility of being excused for this trial by demonstrating bias or prejudice"); 12/05/00pm Tr. 46-47 (telling counsel he was "trying to deliberately force a juror into disqualifying himself" and had "made it perfectly clear that [counsel] ha[d] no desire to have him here, even though he has indicated that he is perfectly capable of fulfilling his obligations as a juror"). While some of these utterances may have been "impolitic," as the appellants assert, they appear to reflect the judge's genuine (and not altogether groundless) perception that defense counsel was overzealous in questioning specific jurors whom they considered unfavorable to the defense case. As such, they were legitimate attempts to control defense counsel and prevent their abuse of voir dire, however they may have been perceived by defense counsel. Thus, they do not of themselves establish judicial bias. See Donato, 99 F.3d at 434 ("It is well within [the trial judge's] discretion to rebuke an attorney, sometimes harshly, when that attorney asks inappropriate questions, ignores the court's instructions, or otherwise engages in improper or delaying behavior. Sharp words spoken by a trial court to counsel do not by themselves establish impermissible bias."). Nor do they do so in combination with judicial comments during the trial.

The appellants complain that the district court improperly "demeaned" and "threatened" defense counsel during trial when he cut them off and instructed them to be seated, see, e.g., 2/01/01am Tr. 63; referred to (and admonished against) "frivolous" objections, see, e.g., 1/24/01am Tr. 18, 2/5/01pm Tr. 60, 2/14/01pm Tr. 39; suggested they were attempting to delay the trial or cause a mistrial, see, e.g., 2/5/01pm Tr. 58, 60; warned of possible contempt citations, see, e.g., id. at 57-58; and in fact cited two defense lawyers for contempt, 2/06/01am Tr. 90; 6/21/01am Tr. 29 (although he vacated the citations after the trial). The appellants argue that these remarks, taken together, reveal such bias on the part of the trial judge that they could not, and did not, receive a fair trial. Again, we disagree.

[J]udicial remarks during the course of a trial that are critical or disapproving of, or even hostile to, counsel, the parties, or their cases, ordinarily do not support a bias or partiality challenge. They may do so if they reveal an opinion that derives from an extrajudicial source; and they will do so if they reveal such a high degree of favoritism or antagonism as to make fair judgment impossible. . . . Not establishing bias or partiality, however, are expressions of impatience, dissatisfaction, annoyance, and even anger, that are within the bounds of what imperfect men and women, even after having been confirmed as federal judges, sometimes display. A judge's ordinary efforts at courtroom administration— even a stern and short-tempered judge's ordinary efforts at courtroom administration—remain immune.

Liteky, 510 U.S. at 555-56, 114 S.Ct. 1147 (emphasis in original). The judge's comments during the trial did not reach a level of hostility that prevented a fair trial. Like those during voir dire, the trial comments reflect the judge's attempt to exercise his discretion to control the trial. That they may be critical or even harsh does not demonstrate reversible bias. See Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1101 ("Several supposedly hostile remarks (such as, for example, the judge's instruction to counsel that `nobody is stopping you [from asking questions of a witness], as long as you do it properly') `involved sustaining objections, denying of motions and ordering the rephrasing of questions to witnesses,' United States v. Logan, 998 F.2d 1025, 1029 (D.C.Cir.), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 1000, 114 S.Ct. 569, 126 L.Ed.2d 469 (1993), and were squarely within the District Court's discretion in controlling the conduct of the trial."); id. at 1102 ("[T]he judge's statement on three occasions that counsel was `in contempt of court,' fall[s] within the judge's discretion to prevent improprieties during the trial and to `rebuke counsel for improper behavior.'" (quoting Logan, 998 F.2d at 1029) (citations omitted)).

There are other reasons as well to reject the appellants' claims that the judge's comments reflected reversible bias. First, the cited utterances were aimed at defense counsel's conduct and not at the defendants themselves or at the merits of the case. See id. at 1101 ("`[R]eversal is not mandated where . . . rebukes of defense counsel reflected not upon the merits of the case but rather on the way it was being handled.'" (quoting United States v. DiTommaso, 817 F.2d 201, 220 (2d Cir. 1987)) (ellipsis in original). Second, most of the comments —including all of the references to contempt—were uttered outside the jury's hearing. See id. at 1102 ("We agree with the First and Second Circuits, that `[e]ven if unwarranted, a judge's reprimand of counsel furnishes no basis for reversal if made outside of the jury's presence.'" (quoting DiTommaso, 817 F.2d at 221; citing Harris v. United States, 367 F.2d 633, 636 (1st Cir.1966), cert. denied, 386 U.S. 915, 87 S.Ct. 862, 17 L.Ed.2d 787 (1967)). Finally, the impact of these isolated remarks seems greatly reduced when viewed in relation to the length of the six-month long trial. See id. ("Even if one were to conclude—which we do not—that any of the challenged remarks were themselves prejudicial, the impact on the jury of such a small number of instances as are cited here would have been minimal or lost in the course of the lengthy trial." (citations omitted)). In these respects, the judge's remarks here differ significantly from the judicial comments we concluded required reversal in United States v. Donato.

In Donato, the court offered two bases to distinguish the judge's conduct there from what occurred in United States v. Edmond and United States v. Logan, in which we rejected bias challenges. The same distinctions hold here. First, the court observed in Donato that the "negative comments" "were more concentrated, frequent, and critical than in either of those cases." 99 F.3d at 435. With regard to concentration, the court observed that the "relative brevity" of the two-week trial there "ma[de] it more likely that the judge's negative comments colored the entire trial" than they did in Edmond, in which the trial lasted three months, or Logan, in which the trial was "`long and arduous.'" Id. (quoting Logan, 998 F.2d at 1033). The proceeding here lasted some nine months, six of them consumed by the trial itself. To illustrate the frequent and negative nature of the judge's comments in Donato, the court quoted extensively from defense counsel's examination of two crucial witnesses—including the defendant—during which the trial judge uttered 65 negative remarks, 55 of them within the jury's hearing. The transcript of this trial shows no comparable frequency. Nor do the comments the appellants cite approach the belittling quality of the judge's remarks in Donato. See Donato, 99 F.3d at 435-37. Second, the Donato court distinguished Edmond and Logan on the ground that in each case "this court found it significant that the challenged remarks of the trial judge had been directed at the attorneys rather than at the defendants themselves," while in Donato the defendant herself came under heavy fire. Id. at 438 (citing Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1101; Logan, 998 F.2d at 1029). Here, as in Logan and Edmond, the negative comments the district judge uttered in the jury's presence were limited to counsel and did not extend to the defendants themselves.

In sum, considering the challenged rulings, procedures and comments together in the context of a long and difficult trial, we are not persuaded that "`the judge's behavior was so prejudicial that it denied [the defendant] a fair, as opposed to perfect, trial.'" Logan, 998 F.2d at 1029 (quoting United States v. Pisani, 773 F.2d 397, 402 (2d Cir.1985)) (alteration in original); see Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1099 ("A finding of judicial bias must be based on `an abiding impression left from a reading of the entire record,' not from particular comments or rulings considered in isolation" (quoting Offutt v. United States, 348 U.S. 11, 12, 75 S.Ct. 11, 99 L.Ed. 11 (1954); citing United States v. Twomey, 806 F.2d 1136, 1140 (1st Cir.1986)). Accordingly, we reject the appellants' allegation of reversible bias.

"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right . . . to be confronted with the witnesses against him . . . ." U.S. CONST. amend. VI. Appellants Sweeney, Carson, and Coates contend that their rights under this clause were violated when the district court allowed Special Agent Vincent Lisi to testify about statements made by Robert "Butchie" Smith.

Before trial, the government moved to admit, through law enforcement officers and other witnesses, statements made by persons allegedly murdered by members of the K-Street organization. Among the statements were Smith's. Smith was a main target of the initial investigation into the Southwest organization in 1995. Law enforcement officers thought he was a major marijuana supplier in the area. During a June 1996 undercover operation, Special Agent Lisi and other officers filmed Smith selling drugs to a cooperating witness. The officers arrested Smith on December 5, 1996, took him to the FBI's offices, and showed him the video tape. Smith then waived his Miranda rights and expressed his willingness to talk with Special Agent Lisi about various crimes in the Southwest area.

Smith told Special Agent Lisi about his interactions with numerous conspiracy members and his conversations with Sweeney. He first detailed his drug sources and drug operation. Smith explained that he normally supplied marijuana to three individuals who in turn sold it on the street. He did this to insulate himself from detection. Smith also sold marijuana directly to Coates, Hill, and Sweeney, among other conspiracy members. Smith described the murders and other violent crimes Sweeney and his associates committed. He then entered into a plea agreement with the government and was released a day after his arrest in order to give the impression that he was not a cooperating witness. He later returned to court and pled guilty to conspiracy to possess and distribute narcotics.

During his initial detention and then while acting as an informant for the government, Smith told Special Agent Lisi of the attempted murder of Michael Jones, the hunt for Kenny Adams, the kidnapping of Anthony Pryor, the murder of Donnell Whitfield, and the murders of Alonzo Gaskins, Darnell Mack, and Melody Anderson. Smith said that he learned of these events and the details surrounding them from his conversations with Sweeney. In support of admitting Smith's and Sweeney's statements, the government adduced the following evidence.

While being detained by the Prince George's County, Maryland, Police Department for the triple murders of Gaskins, Mack, and Anderson, Sweeney began to suspect that Smith had divulged information to the authorities. Prince George's County Police Officers apparently aroused Sweeney's suspicions when they included in their statement of probable cause, filed at Sweeney's initial appearance, information about the triple murders, information attributed to a confidential FBI source. The probable-cause statement explained that Sweeney had told this informant about the murders and that only the investigators and perpetrators of the offense knew the information.

According to James Montgomery, whose testimony fills in the remaining details, Sweeney asked Carson and Montgomery to visit him while in jail. Montgomery did not go, but Carson visited Sweeney and reported his conversation to Montgomery. Carson asked Sweeney whom he told about the triple murders; Sweeney said that he told Smith about it and that Smith was cooperating with the FBI.21 Carson explained to Montgomery that without Smith the government would have no case against Sweeney for the triple murders.

In the following months, Carson and Montgomery planned and attempted several times to track down Smith and kill him. Montgomery and Carson looked for Smith whenever they happened to visit an area Smith frequented and would sometimes drive through those areas for the sole purpose of tracking him down. They spotted Smith several times in the open but could "do nothing to him in front of . . . everybody." On one occasion, Carson and Montgomery found Smith on Half Street, Southwest. They hurried to Carson's house, where Carson retrieved his sweat suit, gun, and gun belt, and then took a circuitous route back to Half Street. Carson ran up an alley to catch Smith from behind, while Montgomery waited in the car, but the tactic proved unsuccessful.

On June 16, 1997, while Montgomery was selling marijuana on Second Street, Carson approached Montgomery, took his car keys, and left in Montgomery's car. Some time later, Montgomery learned that Smith had been shot on Half Street. Montgomery then rode a bicycle to the corner of Half and O Streets. There he heard that Smith had been killed, which, according to Montgomery, came as a great relief, because he — like the other conspirators — was concerned that Smith was an informant. After learning of Smith's death, Montgomery rode back to Second Street, Southwest. Carson returned later that evening in Montgomery's car, parking it in an alley. As soon as Montgomery saw Carson, he said "you know them peoples got hit," to which Carson responded "yeah, I know. . . . [W]e're all right." Montgomery asked if Carson knew about whom he was talking. Carson said "trust me, we're all right," and gave Montgomery his keys back. Carson then instructed Montgomery to "stay from up Half Street" with his car "and not to drive it if [he] didn't have to." From a prior experience with Carson, Montgomery understood Carson's instruction to be a warning that someone might identify his car in relation to Smith's murder if Montgomery took the car near Half Street.

Relying on this evidence, most of which consisted of Montgomery's testimony, the government argued that the appellants forfeited their Sixth Amendment right to confront Smith. The Confrontation Clause secures a criminal defendant's right to confront witnesses against him through cross-examination. See, e.g., Delaware v. Van Arsdall, 475 U.S. 673, 678, 106 S.Ct. 1431, 89 L.Ed.2d 674 (1986) (quoting Davis v. Alaska, 415 U.S. 308, 315-16, 94 S.Ct. 1105, 39 L.Ed.2d 347 (1974)); Pointer v. Texas, 380 U.S. 400, 404-05, 406-07, 85 S.Ct. 1065, 13 L.Ed.2d 923 (1965) (collecting cases); Mattox v. United States, 156 U.S. 237, 244, 15 S.Ct. 337, 39 L.Ed. 409 (1895); see also Crawford v. Washington, 541 U.S. 36, 49, 53-54, 57, 124 S.Ct. 1354, 158 L.Ed.2d 177 (2004). But a defendant forfeits this right when, through his misconduct, he causes the witness to be unavailable. United States v. White, 116 F.3d 903, 911 (D.C.Cir.1997) (per curiam) (collecting cases). The government claimed that these defendants therefore forfeited their rights under the Confrontation Clause when their coconspirators murdered Smith, an act in furtherance of the conspiracy and reasonably foreseeable. It also claimed that Sweeney's statements to Smith were admissible as coconspirator statements in furtherance of the conspiracy.

The appellants objected on several grounds. They disputed whether a defendant could forfeit his confrontation rights based on misconduct committed by a coconspirator and whether there was a factual predicate for such forfeiture and for the admissibility of Sweeney's statements to Smith. The district court overruled the objections, finding that "Smith was a co-conspirator and that the information imparted to Mr. Smith by Mr. Sweeney was in furtherance of that conspiracy." As a legal matter, the court agreed with the government that a defendant forfeits his right to confront a witness if his coconspirators caused the unavailability of that witness through misconduct and if their action was within the scope and in furtherance of the conspiracy, as well as reasonably foreseeable to conspirators. The court found that Sweeney "was directly involved in procuring the absence of . . . Smith as a witness by . . . inducing a co-conspirator to kill" him, and that "Carson's murder of Smith, either alone or in conjunction with others, made [Smith] unavailable as a witness for the government in this case." "[T]hese co-conspirators," the district court said, forfeited "their confrontation and hearsay objections to statements about acts in furtherance of, within the scope and reasonably foreseeable to all of them."

Sweeney, Carson, and Coates argue that the district court erred in concluding that a defendant may forfeit his rights under the Confrontation Clause and Federal Rule of Evidence 804(b)(6) when a coconspirator's misconduct causes a witness's absence. They also claim the court's predicate factual findings — that Carson or some other conspirator caused Smith's absence — were clearly erroneous. The district court was required to find the necessary facts by a preponderance of the evidence. White, 116 F.3d at 912. We review the court's legal conclusions regarding the Confrontation Clause and Rule 804(b)(6) de novo, see United States v. Cherry, 217 F.3d 811, 814 (10th Cir. 2000), and its factual findings for clear error, White, 116 F.3d at 911 n. 2.

Although the Confrontation Clause secures important rights, those rights are not absolute. The rule has long been that defendants through misconduct may forfeit their right to confront witnesses against them. See Snyder v. Massachusetts, 291 U.S. 97, 106, 54 S.Ct. 330, 78 L.Ed. 674 (1934), abrogated on other grounds by Malloy v. Hogan, 378 U.S. 1, 84 S.Ct. 1489, 12 L.Ed.2d 653 (1964); Diaz v. United States, 223 U.S. 442, 452-53, 32 S.Ct. 250, 56 L.Ed. 500 (1912) (quoting Reynolds v. United States, 98 U.S. 145, 158, 25 L.Ed. 244 (1878)); Reynolds, 98 U.S. at 158-59; see also Illinois v. Allen, 397 U.S. 337, 343, 90 S.Ct. 1057, 25 L.Ed.2d 353 (1970).22 In United States v. White, we recognized that there is no more extreme "form of misconduct . . . than the murder of a potential witness" and held "that a defendant who wrongfully procures the absence of a witness or potential witness may not assert confrontation rights as to that witness." 116 F.3d at 911. This rule rests on "equity" and "the need for fit incentives." Id.; see Crawford, 541 U.S. at 62, 124 S.Ct. 1354; United States v. Thompson, 286 F.3d 950, 962 (7th Cir.2002) (collecting sources); Steele v. Taylor, 684 F.2d 1193, 1202 (6th Cir.1982). A defendant should not be permitted to gain an evidentiary advantage through "threats, violence or murder." White, 116 F.3d at 911; id. at 912; United States v. Mastrangelo, 693 F.2d 269, 272-73 (2d Cir.1982); see also, e.g., Cherry, 217 F.3d at 815. Rule 804(b)(6) of the Federal Rules of Evidence also excepts from inadmissible hearsay those statements "offered against a party that has engaged or acquiesced in wrongdoing that was intended to, and did, procure the unavailability of the declarant as a witness." This rule is necessary, according to the advisory committee notes, in order "to deal with abhorrent behavior `which strikes at the heart of the system of justice itself.'" Fed.R.Evid. 804(b)(6) advisory committee's note (quoting Mastrangelo, 693 F.2d at 273).

Appellants do not dispute any of this. Their quarrel is with allowing the misconduct of a coconspirator to cause the forfeiture of a defendant's right — a subject we address in a moment — and with the district court's underlying factual findings. As to the facts, the district court found that Carson murdered Smith, "either alone or in conjunction with others," and that this "made [Smith] unavailable as a witness for the government." Ample evidence supported this finding. Montgomery testified at length about his and Carson's activities leading up to Smith's murder; their motive for killing Smith; their ongoing hunt for him; their failed opportunities; Carson's use of Montgomery's car just before Smith's murder; Carson's return after the murder; his acknowledgment of Smith's murder and his assurance that they were "all right"; his instruction to Montgomery not to drive near the murder scene; and Montgomery's understanding that Carson meant that, if he did drive near the scene, observers might identify the car in relation to the murder. The appellants insist that because the government offered no eyewitness to Smith's murder, Montgomery's testimony was inherently suspect. But no rule of law required the government to produce an eyewitness, assuming there was one despite Montgomery's and Carson's desire to eliminate Smith without anyone watching. The district court evaluated Montgomery's credibility and credited his testimony, and there is no basis for our disturbing the court's judgment. See United States v. Scriber, 499 F.2d 1041, 1044 & n. 12 (D.C.Cir.1974); see also United States v. Lewis, 693 F.2d 189, 193 (D.C.Cir.1982). It follows that there was a factual predicate to forfeiture and that Carson has forfeited any rights he may have had. See White, 116 F.3d at 911; see also Fed.R.Evid. 804(b)(6).

Sweeney and Coates — not Carson, of course — argue that a defendant's forfeiture, either under the Confrontation Clause or Rule 804(b)(6), cannot result from a coconspirator's causing a witness to be absent from trial. Yet the reasons why a defendant forfeits his confrontation rights apply with equal force to a defendant whose coconspirators render the witness unavailable, so long as their misconduct was within the scope of the conspiracy and reasonably foreseeable to the defendant, as it was here.23 Suppose several individuals enter into a conspiracy, and, as part of the co