This appeal concerns the 1972 purchase by defendant Chicago Professional Sports Corporation ("CPSC") of the Chicago Bulls professional basketball team. Plaintiffs Illinois Basketball, Inc. ("IBI") and Marvin Fishman, who had also sought to purchase the Bulls, brought suit alleging that the Bulls had been acquired through violations of the Sherman Act and Illinois common law. The district court found that IBI and CPSC had been competing to control a natural monopoly market in the presentation of live professional basketball in Chicago. In the court's view, the plaintiffs had "won" when they executed a contract with the Bulls' former owners. The sale was, however, contingent upon the approval of the National Basketball Association ("NBA"), and the court found that the defendants had set out to destroy the plaintiffs' victory through anticompetitive acts. It ruled that they had violated sections 1 and 2 of the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. Secs. 1, 2 (1982), by refusing the plaintiffs a lease at the Chicago Stadium and by participating, with certain NBA members, in a group boycott of IBI, and it awarded plaintiff IBI treble damages for these violations. The court also ruled that the defendants had interfered with IBI's contract rights and prospective advantage in violation of Illinois law and entered an alternative judgment for actual and punitive damages.

We agree with the district court that the refusal to lease the Chicago Stadium violated sections 1 and 2 and constituted tortious interference with prospective advantage, and we affirm its judgment as to liability on these bases. We do not agree that the judgment can be sustained on the NBA boycott claim or on the claim based on tortious interference with contract. We also believe that the district court erred in its award of damages and that the case must be remanded on that account.

The facts as found by the district court are set out at length in the district court opinion. Fishman v. Wirtz, 1981-2 Trade Cas. (CCH) p 64,378 (N.D.Ill. Oct. 28, 1981) ("Liability Opinion"). We set forth only those that are necessary to understand the issues on appeal.

1. Negotiations to Purchase the Bulls. In 1971 the Chicago Professional Basketball Corporation ("Chicago Basketball") decided to sell the Chicago Bulls. Plaintiff Fishman formed an investors' group (which included defendants Albert Adelman, Lester Crown, Philip Klutznick and James Cook and non-defendants Edward Ginsberg and George Steinbrenner III) to investigate purchasing the Bulls. By January 1972 this group had reached an agreement in principle with Chicago Basketball to acquire the Bulls for $3.3 million. Several members of the Fishman group thought it unwise to buy the team without a lease commitment from a local arena, and Chicago Basketball president Elmer Rich arranged a meeting between the group and Arthur Wirtz, who with his son William, controlled defendant Chicago Stadium Corporation ("CSC"). The Bulls had been playing at the Chicago Stadium under a series of short-term leases.1 The group asked Wirtz for a three-year lease at a lower rate than that which Chicago Basketball was paying. Wirtz refused and, in light of this rejection, the group made Rich a lower offer for the Bulls, which was rejected.

Fishman then formed a new investors' group, later incorporated as IBI,2 which resumed negotiations with Rich. By April 1972, he had competition: first, Peter Graham, a Vancouver investor and owner of an arena in San Diego, and, second, a group largely composed of the other members of the first Fishman group (with the addition of Arthur Wirtz). This group was later incorporated as defendant CPSC.3 Between March and May 1972, Graham and IBI both offered to purchase the Bulls for $3.25 million; CPSC offered $3.3 million. Chicago Basketball rejected Graham's offer on May 4, 1972, and Graham dropped out of the competition. Negotiations continued with both IBI and CPSC. On June 2, 1972, IBI submitted to the Bulls' attorney a signed offer to buy the Bulls for $3.3 million; that same day the Bulls' Executive Committee recommended that IBI's offer be accepted because IBI was willing to pay all cash at closing. Rich wrote to Adelman, advising CPSC of this recommendation. On June 5, 1972, Adelman telephoned Rich and attempted to renew negotiations on CPSC's behalf. Adelman reminded Rich that Fishman's group had no place to play and still needed NBA approval. Rich responded to Adelman by letter dated June 7, stating that he did not see how an offer by CPSC could get preference over IBI's. He also advised Adelman, however, that if CPSC wanted to make a new offer it would have to submit a signed contract incorporating all terms required by Chicago Basketball.

On June 9, CPSC sent Chicago Basketball an executed stock purchase agreement and a cashier's check for $3.3 million. This time, CPSC also agreed to pay the entire purchase price in cash at the closing. On June 12, Ginsberg telephoned Rich and increased the CPSC offer by $50,000 in order to top IBI's offer. Finally, on June 13, CPSC again modified the stock purchase agreement in hopes of winning Rich's approval.

Nevertheless, on June 14, 1972, Chicago Basketball formally accepted and executed IBI's contract. The contract provided that any sale was subject to approval by the NBA and obligated Chicago Basketball to use its best efforts to secure NBA approval. The district court found:

IBI's contract and offer was [sic] perceived by the Bulls to be preferable to CPSC's offer for several reasons, among them was the fact that various ambiguities and problems in the CPSC offer would require additional negotiations, with what was viewed as, the somewhat difficult CPSC group, and it was unlikely, as a consequence, that the agreement would be ready for presentation at the June 15-16 NBA meeting.

Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,748.

2. The June NBA Meeting. The NBA Constitution provides that all business and policy decisions of the NBA are to be made by its Board of Governors, which is comprised of one representative from each NBA franchise. Any transfer or sale of ten percent or more of any franchise must be approved by three-quarters of the Board of Governors. Thus, the contract between IBI and Chicago Basketball needed the affirmative vote of thirteen out of seventeen governors for the sale to become final. The NBA Board of Governors met in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia on June 15-16, 1972. By that time, the NBA Commissioner and NBA Finance Committee had investigated and approved IBI's financial and moral fitness to be the owner of an NBA franchise, and the proposed sale was on the agenda for presentation to the full Board at the June meeting.

Prior to the execution of the IBI-Chicago Basketball contract, several CPSC shareholders had sent telegrams to the NBA Commissioner and the Board of Governors advising them that CPSC's cash offer for the Bulls was larger than IBI's and that "[w]e have reached an agreement with Arthur Wirtz owner of the Chicago Stadium for a ten year lease which insures the availability of the best arena with the largest seating capacity in Chicago at which the Chicago Bowls [sic] can play." CPSC also sent its president, James Cook, and its attorney to White Sulphur Springs, although CPSC had no scheduled business before the NBA. On the evening of June 14, Cook discussed CPSC's position with several NBA members; he later admitted that "his purpose was to secure nonapproval of the transfer to IBI as this would be the only possible way his group could possibly acquire the Bulls." Id. at 74,749.

On June 15, Rich presented the proposed sale of the Bulls to the Board of Governors. Only ten of the seventeen governors voted to approve the transfer.4 Two reasons for not approving the transfer to IBI were mentioned: (1) IBI did not have a lease and, specifically, did not have a lease at the Chicago Stadium, and (2) CPSC had made it known that it wanted to purchase the Bulls. After the vote, it was suggested that, since IBI's primary problem was the lack of a lease, the negative vote be rescinded to allow IBI to secure a lease commitment. The proposed transfer could then be presented at the next NBA meeting, to be held in New York City on July 11, 1972.

3. IBI's Efforts to Acquire a Stadium Lease. After being informed that a stadium lease was the prerequisite to NBA approval, Rich and Fishman decided to each approach Wirtz separately to discuss acquiring a lease at the Chicago Stadium. From June 19 to June 29, 1972, Fishman attempted to arrange a meeting with Wirtz, but Wirtz would not see him or return his telephone calls. Wirtz did, however, meet with Rich on June 21. At this meeting, Wirtz told Rich that he would not discuss a lease with Fishman because IBI did not own the Bulls. He told Rich that he would consider giving Chicago Basketball (Rich's organization) a ten-year lease, which would be assignable only if Chicago Basketball "guaranteed" the assignee's performance, including rent payments, for the entire ten-year term. Wirtz explained that he needed a ten-year guarantee because of his concern about IBI's financial responsibility. The district court found, however, that "Wirtz never met with Fishman to learn about IBI's financial stability. Moreover, the rent for the Chicago Stadium was often taken 'off the top' of the office receipts and, accordingly, the 'guarantee' concept appears to have been unrelated to any business needs of the Chicago Stadium." Id. at 74,751.

At the same June 21 meeting, Wirtz asked Rich to sell the Bulls to his group or, in the alternative, to present both offers to the NBA and let the Board of Governors choose between them. Rich stated that he would discuss all matters raised by Wirtz with Chicago Basketball and asked Wirtz to put his ten-year lease proposal in writing, which Wirtz said he would do. Speaking on his own behalf, Rich stated that Chicago Basketball would only consider a lease that it could freely sublease to any buyer without the Stadium's consent and without remaining financially liable. He also stated that he would not consider a sale to CPSC because Chicago Basketball had already executed a contract with IBI.

After this meeting, Rich contacted Wirtz several times, asking for the promised lease proposal. On June 27, Wirtz wrote Rich, again stating his position that the Bulls should be sold to CPSC. He did not enclose or discuss a lease with, or assignable to, IBI. In this letter, the district court found that "Wirtz made it clear that he was going to use the power of the Chicago Stadium and whatever influence he could assert among NBA governors to obtain the Bulls." Id. at 74,751-52. Wirtz sent copies of this June 27 letter to the NBA Commissioner, the President of the NBA and the owner of the Los Angeles Lakers. With this communication, the district court found, "Wirtz made it clear to the members of the NBA that IBI did not, and would not, have a lease at the Chicago Stadium, that the Crown-Wirtz group would have such a lease, and that the Crown-Wirtz group wanted to purchase the Bulls." Id. at 74,752.

Rich and Wirtz met again on June 29. Wirtz attempted to raise the issue of effecting a sale to CPSC and not IBI, but Rich interjected that he was there only to discuss a lease for IBI and that his attorney had advised him not to discuss any other disposition of the Bulls. On July 10, Wirtz wrote Rich stating that he would not lease the Chicago Stadium to IBI and that he intended to attempt to obtain the Bulls for CPSC.

Since mid-May 1972, when IBI learned that Wirtz was allied with the competition, IBI had been investigating alternative sites for the Bulls' home arena. On July 5, after Wirtz had refused to make any sort of lease at the Chicago Stadium available to IBI and six days before the July NBA meeting, IBI executed a lease at the International Amphitheatre.

4. The July NBA Meeting. The NBA Board of Governors met in New York City on July 11, 1972 and, once again, the Chicago Basketball-IBI sale was on the agenda. Prior to the meeting, CPSC continued its efforts to effect a rejection of IBI's application and obtain the franchise for itself. Telegrams were sent to the NBA Commissioner and several NBA members, stating that CPSC still wanted to purchase the Bulls and had a commitment for a ten-year lease at the Chicago Stadium. William Wirtz wrote Abe Pollin, NBA President and owner of the Washington Bullets, setting forth the seating capacity of the International Amphitheatre; Ginsberg sent a copy of the letter and telegram to Ned Irish, owner of the New York Knicks; other individual defendants also communicated with individual members of the NBA.5 The effect of these communications was to make "it clear to NBA members that, although the Chicago Stadium was not available to the Bulls (and the NBA) if the Bulls were sold to IBI, the Chicago Stadium would be available to the Bulls (and the NBA) if the IBI sale was aborted, and the Bulls sold to the Crown-Wirtz group." Id. at 74,753.

At the July 11 meeting, Rich again requested the NBA Board of Governors to approve the transfer of the Bulls to IBI. Rich told the Board that Wirtz would not make a lease at the Stadium available to IBI and that, as a result, IBI had arranged a lease at the International Amphitheatre. There was some discussion prior to the vote. Certain NBA governors, including Alan Rothenberg (Los Angeles Lakers) and Joel Axelson (Kansas City Kings), openly expressed their desire to have the team sold to CPSC and not IBI. After the discussion and upon a vote, the proposed transfer was defeated. Ten members voted to approve the transfer and seven voted not to. Those opposed to the transfer were Irish (New York Knicks); Jack Kent Cooke (Los Angeles Lakers); Pollin (Washington Bullets); Putnam (Atlanta Hawks); Axelson (Kansas City Kings); Ray Patterson (Houston Rockets); Richard Bloch (Phoenix Suns) (hereinafter collectively the "NBA no-votes").

There were two primary reasons for the votes cast against IBI by each of at least six, and perhaps seven, members who so voted: (1) The Chicago Stadium, which was withheld from IBI, but available to the Crown-Wirtz group, was vastly superior to any other arena in Chicago and was in their opinion the only adequate facility in Chicago for NBA basketball; and/or, (2) The Crown-Wirtz group was considered the more preferable group to acquire the Bulls and in order to make their acquisition of the Bulls possible the sale to IBI had to be prevented.

Specifically, each "no" vote, with the exception of Phoenix, admitted that they so voted because IBI had a lease at the International Amphitheatre, which they deemed entirely inadequate and unacceptable. The Phoenix governor, Robert [sic] Bloch, testified that he "had no present recollection" of why Phoenix voted against the transfer to IBI.

Further, the following NBA members admitted that a substantial contributing factor in their decision to vote against the transfer to IBI was the request and invitation of the Crown-Wirtz group, and others on its behalf, to aid the efforts of the Crown-Wirtz group to acquire the Bulls: Los Angeles by Alan Rothenberg and at the direction of Jack Kent Cooke; Kansas City by Joel Axelson; Atlanta by Bill Putnam; Houston by James Foley at the direction of Ray Patterson. In addition, Rich received phone calls from Abe Pollin and Ned Irish asking what it would take to favor the Crown-Wirtz group. Consequently, an inference can be drawn from all the circumstances that a substantial contributing factor in the decision of NBA members Abe Pollin (Washington) and Ned Irish (New York), who voted against the transfer, was for the same reason.

Id. at 74,753-54 (footnotes omitted).

On July 19, 1972, IBI's contract was terminated, pursuant to a provision which permitted the purchaser to do so if NBA approval could not be obtained. Shortly thereafter, Chicago Basketball renewed negotiations with CPSC. A contract was executed on July 28, 1972, and the NBA approved the transfer of the Bulls to CPSC on August 10, 1972.

5. The Litigation. IBI and Fishman filed two complaints in the Northern District of Illinois, Fishman v. Wirtz, No. 74-C-2814, and Fishman v. Adelman, No. 78-C-3621. These two suits were consolidated on January 25, 1979. A consolidated complaint was filed, naming as defendants Arthur Wirtz, William Wirtz, Lester Crown, Philip Klutznick, James Cook, Albert Adelman, CPSC, CSC, Emprise Corporation, Chicago Blackhawk Hockey Team, Inc., and Atlanta Hockey, Inc.6

The consolidated complaint alleged various violations of sections 1 and 2 of the Sherman Act and of Illinois law. Plaintiffs specifically charged, first, that Arthur Wirtz, William Wirtz and CSC had violated section 2 of the Sherman Act by "refusing to deal" with plaintiffs regarding a lease for plaintiffs at the Chicago Stadium, thereby precluding plaintiffs from entering the market for the presentation of live basketball in Chicago. Consolidated Complaint, Count II(c). Second, plaintiffs alleged that CPSC and Crown, Klutznick, Cook and Adelman had conspired with Arthur Wirtz, William Wirtz and CSC to withhold from plaintiffs a lease at the Chicago Stadium and to make such a lease available only to CPSC, in order to exclude plaintiffs from the market for the presentation of live professional basketball in Chicago. This, it was alleged, constituted a contract or conspiracy in restraint of trade, in violation of section 1, id., Count I, and monopolization, attempted monopolization and a conspiracy to monopolize, in violation of section 2, id., Count II(b). Third, plaintiffs alleged that CPSC and Crown, Klutznick, Cook and Adelman, Arthur Wirtz, William Wirtz and CSC had conspired with the NBA, certain NBA members, Emprise Corporation, Atlanta Hockey, Inc., and Chicago Blackhawk Hockey Team, Inc. to prevent IBI from acquiring the Bulls by means of a group boycott, in violation of both sections 1 and 2. Id., Counts I, II(a), VIII. Finally, plaintiffs alleged that all defendants had violated Illinois law by interfering with plaintiffs' contract rights and prospective economic relationship with Chicago Basketball. Id., Count VII.

A bench trial was held in March and April of 1979. On April 9, 1979, the district court bifurcated the case into separate liability and damages trials. On October 28, 1981, it rendered its decision on the liability issues, finding that the plaintiffs had proven all of the above allegations.7

In reaching this conclusion, the district court found that the relevant market was competition for the presentation of live professional basketball in Chicago. It also found that this was a natural monopoly market and rejected the defendants' contention that a bidding competition to acquire a natural monopoly was not within the purview of the antitrust laws. On the merits, the court found that, in 1972, the Chicago Stadium was an "essential facility" for the presentation of live professional basketball and that the Wirtzes had used their "strategic dominance" of the market in suitable arenas to exclude IBI from the Chicago professional basketball market. It ruled that the Wirtzes had engaged in an unlawful refusal to deal with IBI, with the purpose and effect of excluding IBI from the market and for the further purpose of monopolizing that market on behalf of CPSC, in violation of section 2 of the Sherman Act. It further found that Arthur and William Wirtz, CPSC, CSC, Crown, Klutznick, Cook and Adelman had conspired to prevent IBI from obtaining a stadium lease, which constituted a conspiracy to monopolize, an attempt to monopolize, monopolization and an unreasonable restraint of trade in violation of sections 1 and 2.

The court also found that the defendant CPSC shareholders had personal friendships and business associations with owners of at least five of the NBA franchises, that they had contacted their friends in the NBA for support, and that these friends had as a result voted against the transfer to IBI. It ruled that these communications, together with the resulting "no" votes, established an unlawful group boycott of IBI, subjecting all defendants to liability for violations of sections 1 and 2. Finally, by lobbying and refusing to deal with intent to block the sale, all defendants had also tortiously interfered with IBI's contract rights and prospective economic relationship with Chicago Basketball in violation of Illinois law.

The defendants have appealed8 the district court's ruling. They question its delineation of the relevant market and its conclusion that the antitrust laws are applicable to this competition to acquire a natural monopoly, as well as each of its rulings on the antitrust and state law counts.

Claims of monopolization under section 2 of the Sherman Act, as well as section 1 claims analyzed under the Rule of Reason, require the trier of fact to delineate the "relevant market." A relevant market is comprised of those "commodities reasonably interchangeable by consumers for the same purposes...." United States v. E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., 351 U.S. 377, 395, 76 S.Ct. 994, 1007, 100 L.Ed. 1264 (1956). In making this determination, the trier must decide whether the product is unique or has close substitutes, as to which there are substantial cross-elasticities of demand. Cass Student Advertising, Inc. v. National Educational Advertising Service, Inc., 516 F.2d 1092, 1094-95 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 986, 96 S.Ct. 394, 46 L.Ed.2d 303 (1975). The district court found that the relevant product market in this case was the presentation of live professional basketball, reasoning that "the demand function for professional basketball is not effected [sic] in any significant way by the existence of other amateur or professional sports or other forms of entertainment." Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,756. It found the relevant geographic market to be the Chicago metropolitan area because "[p]rofessional basketball exhibitions are presented in a local market, which, in the present case, is essentially the Chicago metropolitan area. Almost all of the fans who buy tickets and attend NBA games come from a 35 mile radius of the home arena." Id.

Such a finding as to the area of effective competition is subject to the "clearly erroneous" standard of review. Blanton v. Mobil Oil Corp., 721 F.2d 1207, 1213 (9th Cir.1983), cert. denied, 471 U.S. 1007, 105 S.Ct. 1874, 85 L.Ed.2d 166 (1985). The defendants do not, however, challenge the facts as found by the district court. Rather, they assert that it "entirely misconstrued the competition in issue in this case," Appellants' Brief at 65, and urge that we therefore review de novo the district court's ruling, Appellants' Reply Brief at 8.

Defendants assert that the relevant market is actually the nationwide market for the purchase of professional sports franchises. They reason that "[i]n the context of this case, the seller was the Rich group; the potential buyers were IBI, CPSC and Peter Graham (at the outset); and the product was the Bulls franchise." Appellants' Brief at 65. They contend that the market as found by the district court must be wrong because "CPSC and IBI never met or intended to meet in competition in that market." Id. at 64. We do not see why this matters. The defendants are alleged to have unlawfully precluded the plaintiffs from entering the market for the presentation of live basketball in Chicago, thus ensuring the monopoly for themselves. We know of no rule that states that the parties must be in head-to-head competition in the relevant market (as opposed to head-to-head competition for the relevant market) before the antitrust laws will apply.

In this case, the competitors were bidding to acquire a franchise, but they were also bidding to acquire access to a market. It is not clearly erroneous to define the relevant market in these circumstances as the market to which access is sought. In fact, this is how the market has been defined in such cases as Otter Tail Power Co. v. United States, 410 U.S. 366, 369, 93 S.Ct. 1022, 1025, 35 L.Ed.2d 359 (1973) (competition between prospective suppliers of retail electric power; relevant market is electric power in area to be served); City of Mishawaka v. American Electrical Power Co., Inc., 465 F.Supp. 1320, 1325-26 (N.D.Ind.1979), aff'd in relevant part, 616 F.2d 976 (7th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 1096, 101 S.Ct. 892, 66 L.Ed.2d 824 (1981) (same), as well as any number of cases concerning distributorships and sales franchises, e.g., Car Carriers, Inc. v. Ford Motor Co., 745 F.2d 1101, 1110 (7th Cir.1984), cert. denied, 470 U.S. 1054, 105 S.Ct. 1758, 84 L.Ed.2d 821 (1985) (relevant market is market for "haulaway services in Chicago area"); Photovest Corp. v. Fotomat Corp., 606 F.2d 704, 712-14 (7th Cir.1979), cert. denied, 445 U.S. 917, 100 S.Ct. 1278, 63 L.Ed.2d 601 (1980) (relevant market is drive-through retail photo processing in Indianapolis metropolitan area); Sargent-Welch Scientific Co. v. Ventron Corp., 567 F.2d 701, 709-10 (7th Cir.1977), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 822, 99 S.Ct. 87, 58 L.Ed.2d 113 (1979) (relevant market is consumer market for electromagnetic microbalances); see also Annot., 56 A.L.R.Fed. 406 (collecting cases). In all of these cases, the relevant market was that to which access had allegedly been foreclosed by the challenged conduct, not the market for similar business opportunities.9 We find nothing erroneous in the trial court's delineation of the relevant market.

The district court found that the market for the presentation of live professional basketball in Chicago was a natural monopoly market because "[t]he Chicago metropolitan area, like virtually all of the cities in which the NBA has franchises, cannot as a practical matter support two professional basketball franchises." Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,757. Further, the NBA, the more powerful of the two professional basketball leagues in existence in 1972, granted its franchisees exclusive territorial rights in their home cities. The district court thus found that if one wanted to put on professional basketball games in Chicago in 1972, one had to buy the Bulls. Id.

The defendants and the dissent do not dispute this finding. They both, however, do argue that this competition between IBI and CPSC to acquire a natural monopoly was not protected by the antitrust laws because substitution of one competitor for another would not injure competition: Whether CPSC or IBI ultimately managed to acquire the Bulls was a matter of indifference to the Chicago fans, who would face a monopolist in any event. Thus, the only parties injured by the defendants' shenanigans were IBI and its organizers, who had lost an opportunity to own a monopoly. "[T]he antitrust laws ... were enacted 'for the protection of competition, not competitors.' " Brunswick Corp. v. Pueblo Bowl-O-Mat, 429 U.S. 477, 488, 97 S.Ct. 690, 697, 50 L.Ed.2d 701 (1977), quoting Brown Shoe Co. v. United States, 370 U.S. 294, 320, 82 S.Ct. 1502, 1521, 8 L.Ed.2d 510 (1962) (emphasis in original). This argument requires an analysis of two related issues: the requirement of an antitrust injury, as articulated in the Bowl-O-Mat case, and the concern of the antitrust laws with the interests of the consumer.

1. Antitrust Injury. The concept of "antitrust injury," as introduced in Bowl-O-Mat, is akin to a standing requirement. The plaintiff's injury must be related to the sorts of concerns that underlie the Sherman Act. In Bowl-O-Mat the plaintiffs brought an action under Sec. 7 of the Clayton Act, alleging that defendant Brunswick's acquisition of several rival bowling alleys (which otherwise would have gone out of business) tended to lessen competition because Brunswick was already the "giant" in the bowling alley field. The Court disagreed: What the plaintiffs were really complaining about was increased competition. It ruled that

plaintiffs ... must prove more than injury causally linked to an illegal presence in the market. Plaintiffs must prove antitrust injury, which is to say injury of the type the antitrust laws were intended to prevent and that flows from that which makes defendants' acts unlawful. The injury should reflect the anticompetitive effect either of the violation or of anticompetitive acts made possible by the violation.

429 U.S. at 489, 97 S.Ct. at 697 (emphasis in original). A claim of injury arising from the preservation of competition in a market was considered inimical to the purposes of the antitrust laws. Id. at 488, 97 S.Ct. at 697; see also Matsushita Electrical Industrial Co., Ltd. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. ----, 106 S.Ct. 1348, 1355-56, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986) (plaintiffs did not suffer antitrust injury when defendants conspired to artificially inflate prices because, as sellers in the same market, they tended to benefit from the violation); Local Beauty Supply, Inc. v. Lamaur, Inc., 787 F.2d 1197, 1202-03 (7th Cir.1986) (claimed damages represented sub-jobber's inability to continue to profit from illegal price maintenance scheme).

The case before us is different from these cases. The refusal to lease the Chicago Stadium effectively cut off all competition for the acquisition of the Bulls franchise and injured plaintiffs as a result. Plaintiffs alleged that they were deprived of a fair shot at winning a legal monopoly. There is no reason why this injury is not an antitrust injury unless the Sherman Act does not protect competition to acquire a natural monopoly--which is precisely what the defendants assert.

Defendants seek to extend Bowl-O-Mat into a general rule that "aggressive and even tortious competition to acquire a natural monopoly is not a violation of the Sherman Act." Appellants' Brief at 56. They claim that "[i]t is well settled that the substitution of one competitor for another does not injure competition." Id. at 57. The case law, however, does not support such a broad contention. Indeed, the Supreme Court's decision in Otter Tail, 410 U.S. 366, 93 S.Ct. 1022, 35 L.Ed.2d 359, involved competition to acquire a natural monopoly and held that the use of monopoly power to preclude such competition violated the Sherman Act.

In Otter Tail, a major electric power company ("Otter Tail") sought to acquire retail franchises to distribute and sell electricity in certain municipalities. Each municipality could "accommodate only one distribution system, making each town a natural monopoly for the distribution and sale of electric power at retail." 410 U.S. at 369, 93 S.Ct. at 1025.10 In each town, Otter Tail found itself competing for the retail franchise with a power distribution enterprise owned by a municipality. There would never be any head-to-head competition for consumer patronage: There was only one retail seller before the competition and there would be only one afterwards. The consumers would always face a monopolist. In order to acquire the natural monopoly franchises, Otter Tail refused to sell the municipal companies electric power at wholesale; it also refused to "wheel" power generated by others over its transmission system. Without access to electric power, the competitors were eliminated and Otter Tail won the franchises. The Court held that Otter Tail had "used its monopoly power in the towns in its service area to foreclose competition or gain a competitive advantage, or to destroy a competitor, all in violation of the antitrust laws." Id. at 377, 93 S.Ct. at 1029 (citation omitted). The fact that the plaintiffs' only damages were exclusion from the competition to be a (legal) monopolist did not alter the result.

One of the arguments made by the dissenters in Otter Tail is the same as that made by the defendants and by the dissent in the case before us. Thus, the Otter Tail dissenters argued that:

The theory of [Lorain Journal Co. v. United States, 342 U.S. 143, 72 S.Ct. 181, 96 L.Ed. 162 (1951) ] was that competition in the communications business was being foreclosed by the newspaper's exercise of monopoly power. Here, by contrast, a monopoly is sure to result either way.

410 U.S. at 388-89, 93 S.Ct. at 1035 (emphasis supplied). However, the majority in Otter Tail ignored this argument advanced by the dissenters and in effect held that, even though the consumers of the affected municipalities would face a monopoly--either a municipal utility or the power company--the power company still could not deny its competitor access to its transmission system, either to purchase power from the company or to wheel it from a third-party source.

The dissent attempts to distinguish Otter Tail by arguing that Otter Tail, through its monopoly power over transmission, could preclude consumers in the affected municipalities from receiving the benefits of competition at the level of electric generation. We agree with the dissent that a potential for economies in generation may have existed in Otter Tail, apparently because the affected municipalities might have been able to wheel cheaper power from government hydroelectric dams. The Supreme Court, however, did not rely on the municipalities' potential access to cheaper generation as a basis for its decision. In fact, the majority in Otter Tail did not feel compelled even to respond to the dissenters' point that "a [retail] monopoly is sure to result either way." Thus, whatever the economic distinctions, we think it is difficult to avoid the impact of Otter Tail as a controlling authority.11

In Mishawaka, 616 F.2d 976, this court also protected competition for a natural monopoly market. There the defendants were the sole source of wholesale electric power to certain municipalities, each of which held a natural monopoly in its local retail market. The defendants (which were vertically integrated) instituted a "price squeeze," charging an unjustifiably high price for wholesale power to the municipalities so that their ability to compete at retail was impaired. The price squeeze was allegedly calculated to drive the local retailers out of business and allow the defendants to replace them as retail supplier and natural monopolist. We held that the defendants had violated section 2 because their acts tended to "foreclose competitors from access to markets or customers...." Id. at 986, quoting Sargent-Welch Scientific Co. v. Ventron Corp., 567 F.2d 701, 711-12 (7th Cir.1977), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 822, 99 S.Ct. 87, 58 L.Ed.2d 113 (1978). This principle was repeated in Hecht v. Pro-Football, Inc., 570 F.2d 982 (D.C.Cir.1977), cert. denied, 436 U.S. 956, 98 S.Ct. 3069, 57 L.Ed.2d 1121 (1978); Omega Satellite Products Co. v. City of Indianapolis, 694 F.2d 119, 127 (7th Cir.1982) ("[T]he antitrust laws protect competition not only in, but for, the market--that is, competition to be the firm to enjoy a natural monopoly...."); * Union Leader Corp. v. Newspapers of New England, Inc., 284 F.2d 582 (1st Cir.1960), cert. denied, 365 U.S. 833, 81 S.Ct. 747, 5 L.Ed.2d 744 (1961). See also Northrop Corp. v. McDonnell Douglas Corp., 705 F.2d 1030, 1055 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 849, 104 S.Ct. 156, 78 L.Ed.2d 144 (1983) (fact that government is sole purchaser of sophisticated military aircraft does not render Sherman Act inapplicable); Westborough Mall, Inc. v. City of Cape Girardeau, 693 F.2d 733, 745 n. 7 (8th Cir.1982), cert. denied sub nom. 461 U.S. 945, 103 S.Ct. 2122, 77 L.Ed.2d 1303 (1983) (evidence supports inference that defendants achieved natural monopoly through exclusionary and predatory means); Greenville Publishing Co., Inc. v. Daily Reflector, Inc., 496 F.2d 391, 397 (4th Cir.1974) ("[T]he antitrust laws need not tolerate exclusionary conduct whenever it appears that only one competitor can survive the preliminary bout."); Structure Probe, Inc. v. Franklin Institute, 450 F.Supp. 1272, 1286 (E.D.Pa.1978), aff'd mem. 595 F.2d 1214 (3d Cir.1979); Ovitron Corp. v. General Motors Corp., 295 F.Supp. 373, 378 (S.D.N.Y.1969). The antitrust laws protect against unlawful, exclusionary conduct to acquire a natural monopoly; the Supreme Court has not intimated that Bowl-O-Mat has changed this rule.

We do not quarrel with the dissent's efforts to show that Mishawaka, Union Leader and Hecht were different from the case before us in some economic respects. But the dissent is engaging in post hoc analysis. There is nothing in any of these opinions to suggest that the economic phenomena identified by the dissent were important considerations to the courts which found antitrust violations in these cases. For example, in Mishawaka there is no reason to believe that American Electric Power's price squeeze was designed (as the dissent asserts infra p. 572) to deprive consumers of the benefits of competition in generation and no reason to think that this was a significant factor in this court's analysis. Rather, American Electric Power's ostensible purpose was to replace the town as sole supplier in the retail market. Similarly, in Union Leader there is little to suggest that the First Circuit had in mind in deciding the case the distinctions offered by the dissent. The court applied the antitrust laws in Union Leader to protect competition for a natural monopoly; the court did not believe the market could sustain competition over an extended period of time. 284 F.2d at 584.

2. The Consumer Interest. The defendants further argue that, even if some natural monopoly cases are within the purview of the Sherman Act, this one is not because the plaintiffs have failed to articulate just how the ultimate consumers--Chicago fans--will be hurt by this violation. They assert that "the antitrust laws do not apply where there is no consumer interest to protect." Appellants' Reply Brief at 11. The dissent makes the same argument about consumer effect: "Antitrust law condemns results harmful to consumers.... Bad means that injure only business rivals--that is to say business torts--are outside the scope of antitrust law." Infra p. 564 (emphasis in original).12 This proposition, we think, presents a difficult question requiring the most careful analysis and the weighing of conflicting policies and lines of authority in the application of the antitrust laws.

We agree that the enhancement of consumer welfare is an important policy--probably the paramount policy--informing the antitrust laws. See MCI Communications Corp. v. American Telephone & Telegraph Co., 708 F.2d 1081, 1113 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 891, 104 S.Ct. 234, 78 L.Ed.2d 226 (1983). Some Supreme Court cases indicate that effect on ultimate consumers is, in an appropriate context, a significant consideration in analyzing a business practice to see whether there has been an antitrust violation. See, e.g., Aspen Skiing Co. v. Aspen Highlands Skiing Corp., 472 U.S. 585, 105 S.Ct. 2847, 2859, 86 L.Ed.2d 467 (1985) ("The question whether [the defendant's] conduct may properly be characterized as exclusionary cannot be answered by simply considering its effect on [the plaintiff]. In addition, it is relevant to consider its impact on consumers...."). These cases do not seem to us, however, to say that the law places on the plaintiff, as a prerequisite to maintain an antitrust suit, the burden of articulating how the welfare of the ultimate consumer has been diminished by an injury to competition at another level. We have found no case (and none has been cited to us) in which the Supreme Court has put the burden on a plaintiff to isolate and demonstrate the consumer impact of a particular purported antitrust violation not directed at the consumer level.13 While antitrust law may be moving in the direction of being construed as a "pure" consumer protection measure, cases such as Otter Tail strongly suggest that in the natural monopoly area, at least, the Supreme Court has not embraced this approach.14 The Court has instead stressed that the antitrust laws seek to protect competition, see Bowl-O-Mat, 429 U.S. at 488, 97 S.Ct. at 697 (antitrust laws enacted for the protection of competition, not competitors); Havoco of America, Ltd. v. Shell Oil Co., 626 F.2d 549, 558 (7th Cir.1980) (The issue was not whether ultimate consumers were clearly affected by the challenged conduct but whether there was injury to competition at any level. "[T]he sole question is whether [unfair means of competition] lessened competition."), as well as to protect those activities that will promote competition, see National Society of Professional Engineers v. United States, 435 U.S. 679, 691, 98 S.Ct. 1355, 1365, 55 L.Ed.2d 637 (1978) (relevant question is whether restraint promotes or suppresses competition). The antitrust laws are concerned with the competitive process, and their application does not depend in each particular case upon the ultimate demonstrable consumer effect. A healthy and unimpaired competitive process is presumed to be in the consumer interest.

Here the defendants, through the economic leverage provided by their stadium monopoly, succeeded in driving out all competition for ownership of the Bulls. They used a monopoly in one market to foreclose competition in another--a classic violation of the antitrust laws. The actual competition confronting the defendants consisted of Peter Graham, who dropped out early (before CPSC was involved), and later IBI. The potential competition, see United States v. El Paso Natural Gas Co., 376 U.S. 651, 658-59, 84 S.Ct. 1044, 1048, 12 L.Ed.2d 12 (1964), was much broader and consisted of all those who might have bid for the Bulls had they not faced the insuperable obstacle of the defendants' stadium monopoly. That the survivor of the aborted competition would quite fortuitously find itself alone in the consumer basketball market in Chicago--at least for a while--does not make the destruction of competition to enter that market any less an antitrust violation.

A rule that made the legality of arguably predatory conduct at the level of entry into the consumer market depend on whether post hoc analysis could clearly identify adverse impacts on ultimate consumers would be capricious, as well as unjust. Following this approach would mean that if two teams were presumed to survive, see Hecht, 570 F.2d 982, the Sherman Act had been violated. But if only one could be practically supported, very similar business conduct would be unexceptionable and, according to the dissent, would here not even be a "business tort." Such a distinction would seem not only unjust but would not be capable of being practically administered because it would depend on after-the-fact economic conjecture and not on the obvious fact of injury to competition at the level of entry to the market. Here, there seems to be no way of telling whether IBI or CPSC would be a "better" owner from the perspective of basketball fans. But we think the Sherman Act requires that the choice between them result from unconstrained competition on the merits.

On the other hand, and viewing the matter from a different perspective, we agree that identifying consumer effect, to the extent this is feasible, may allow us in some cases invoking the Rule of Reason to better evaluate the impact of a purported violation on the competitive process. For instance, the Court has countenanced some restrictions on competition that would actually enhance the overall competitive process, see, e.g., NCAA v. Board of Regents, 468 U.S. 85, 102, 104 S.Ct. 2948, 2961, 82 L.Ed.2d 70 (1984) (NCAA's horizontal restraints "widen consumer choice--not only the choices available to sports fans but also those available to athletes--and hence can be viewed as procompetitive ") (emphasis supplied). The defendants here have not suggested any procompetitive benefit which will result from the challenged conduct.15

In any event, we should not be so quick to assume that there is no consumer interest in this case. Except in those cases involving restraints that maximize economic well-being in some demonstrable way, notably involving professional associations, see, e.g., Professional Engineers, 435 U.S. 679, 98 S.Ct. 1355, or sports ventures, see, e.g., NCAA, 468 U.S. 85, 104 S.Ct. 2948, the Court has never given us to believe that anything save unfettered competition is the key to consumer well-being. In Union Leader, 284 F.2d 582, the First Circuit was confronted with alleged antitrust violations in the competition of two newspapers to be the sole paper serving Haverhill, Massachusetts, a "one-paper town." The court noted in a footnote that it was an "interesting speculation" whether the antitrust laws were meant to protect one would-be natural monopolist from another. It concluded that, barring an "identity of performance," the public could only benefit from free competition, "even though that competition be an elimination bout." Id. at 584 n. 4. In a similar vein, the District of Columbia Circuit noted in Hecht, 570 F.2d 982, that "we cannot say that it is in the public interest to have the incumbent as its sole theatre, or its sole newspaper, or its sole football team, merely because the incumbent got there first." Id. at 991. Part of the problem with requiring the plaintiff to pinpoint just how the public is harmed by a short-circuited competitive process is that the plaintiff has never been given an opportunity to compete freely and win the monopoly. We do not know whether IBI would be a better Bulls' owner; we know only that Rich could not have selected IBI had he wanted to.

The cases cited by the defendants concerning the termination of exclusive distributors and suppliers of goods and services are not on point. These cases involve no more than "plaintiffs' commercial disappointment at losing ... patronage--the recurrent case of the jilted customer, dealer or supplier who loses a ... franchise and accuses the [franchisor] and the new suitor of attempting to monopolize something." Dunn & Mavis, Inc. v. Nu-Car Driveaway, Inc., 691 F.2d 241, 243-44 (6th Cir.1982). Without more, the substitution of one competitor for another does not implicate the antitrust laws. "The exclusion of competitors is cause for antitrust concern only if it impairs the health of the competitive process itself." Roland Machinery Co. v. Dresser Industries, Inc., 749 F.2d 380, 394 (7th Cir.1984). See also Car Carriers v. Ford Motor Co., 745 F.2d 1101, 1109-10 (7th Cir.1984) ("[T]he complaint does not in any way set forth facts to support the conclusion that [the alleged] conspiracy had any anticompetitive effect.").

This, too, is why we do not find Brunswick Corp. v. Riegel Textile Corp., 752 F.2d 261 (7th Cir.1984), cert. denied, 472 U.S. 1018, 105 S.Ct. 3480, 87 L.Ed.2d 615 (1985), dispositive. In that case, Brunswick had formulated a process for manufacturing antistatic yarn. It disclosed the process to Riegel, a yarn manufacturer. Instead of keeping the process confidential (as it had promised), Riegel applied for a patent in its own name. We ruled that no antitrust cause of action had been stated because only a competitor had been injured and "[f]rom the standpoint of antitrust law, concerned as it is with consumer welfare, it is a matter of indifference whether Riegel or Brunswick exploits a monopoly of antistatic yarn." 752 F.2d at 267. But in Riegel the competitive process, which the antitrust laws do protect, was not jeopardized. Brunswick and Riegel were not competing to acquire a natural monopoly--they were not competing at all. Cf. Almeda Mall, Inc. v. Houston Lighting & Power Co., 615 F.2d 343 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 870, 101 S.Ct. 208, 66 L.Ed.2d 90 (1980) (no antitrust violation because on the facts there was no competition to be affected). There would never have been competition between Brunswick or Riegel, with or without Riegel's misconduct.16 In the present case, there would have been competition had Wirtz and CPSC not withheld the Stadium. We believe that Riegel must be read narrowly because the broader reading urged by defendants would conflict with Otter Tail and the other natural monopoly cases. Such a conflict was not even hinted at in Riegel.

The fact that the precise impact of defendants' conduct on the broad consuming public has remained unfocused here does not prevent a finding that the antitrust laws have been violated.D. Stadium Lease Violations

The district court found that the Wirtzes and CSC had refused to give IBI a lease at the Chicago Stadium "as a purposeful means of excluding a competitor (IBI) and monopolizing a relevant market." Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,770. It also found that the Chicago Stadium was an "essential facility" that the Wirtzes and CSC did not make available to their competitors on nondiscriminatory terms. For these reasons, it ruled that the refusal to deal regarding a stadium lease violated section 2. The district court also found that "the refusal to deal was not merely the unilateral act of Arthur Wirtz, but rather was a critical element in a common scheme whereby the Crown-Wirtz group sought to prevent IBI from acquiring the Bulls." Id. at 74,774. Thus, it ruled that defendants CPSC, its individual shareholders, CSC and the Wirtzes had participated in a conspiracy to monopolize in violation of section 2. Finally, because this scheme was a concerted refusal to deal, the district court ruled that it was also a per se violation of section 1.

The so-called "essential facilities doctrine" imposes upon a firm controlling an essential facility--that is, a facility that cannot reasonably be duplicated and to which access is necessary if one wishes to compete--the obligation to make that facility available to competitors on nondiscriminatory terms. A refusal to deal in the context of an essential facility violates section 2 because control of an essential facility can "extend monopoly power from one stage of production to another, and from one market into another." MCI Communications Corp. v. American Telephone & Telegraph Co., 708 F.2d at 1132.

The trial court found that the Chicago Stadium was an essential facility and that the defendants had refused to deal by withholding a lease, although they had no legitimate business reason for the refusal. The defendants do not dispute that these facts, if true, make out a section 2 violation. Defendants do, however, dispute the necessary findings of fact, namely, that the Stadium was an essential facility and that there was any refusal to deal, concerted or otherwise, at all.

To be essential, "a facility need not be indispensable; it is sufficient if duplication of the facility would be economically infeasible and if denial of its use inflicts a severe handicap on potential market entrants." Hecht, 570 F.2d at 992 (football stadium could be an essential facility). See also MCI, 708 F.2d at 1132 (facility is essential if competitor cannot "practically or reasonably ... duplicate" it). The district court found that "the Chicago Stadium ... was the only Stadium in the Chicago Metropolitan area during the relevant time period which was suitable for the exhibition of professional basketball," Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,771, that it could not feasibly be duplicated by IBI, and that lack of access hurt IBI's status as a competitor. These findings are not clearly erroneous.

First, the district court stressed the "natural advantages" that the Chicago Stadium had over other sites in 1972. These included a seating capacity of 17,000, 6500 more than the Amphitheatre. It also noted that "the locker rooms, the lighting for color television, and the overall physical plant at the Stadium were significantly superior to that available at the Amphitheatre or any other arena in Chicago." Id. at 74,755. Conceding that a facility is not essential merely because it is better than or preferable to another, the court concluded that the Stadium was not just better--it was "unique." It found that the Stadium had a strategic dominance over the market for indoor team sports arenas in Chicago, noting that it could charge much higher prices than the other arenas without causing its patrons to switch. Id. It also noted in this regard that all groups interested in owning the Bulls wanted a lease at the Chicago Stadium notwithstanding the higher rent. Finally, the district court gave weight to the preferences of the NBA: "It was essential in order to obtain NBA approval, to acquire the Bulls, and to enter the market for the presentation of professional basketball in Chicago, that the proposed transferee have access to the Chicago Stadium." Id.

The Chicago Stadium was not duplicable without an expenditure that would have been unreasonable in light of the size of the transaction such duplication would have facilitated. There was testimony that a new arena would cost $19 million to build, an economically unrealistic sum where a substantially less expensive basketball team was the real goal. Defendants argue that IBI could have built a stadium, noting that a new indoor arena, the Rosemont Horizon, did go up in Chicago a few years later. But the test is not whether it would be impossible to duplicate the facility. Not every essential facility need be as extensive and complicated as the local distribution facilities of AT & T's operating companies. Cf. MCI, 708 F.2d at 1131-33. The point of the essential facilities doctrine is that a potential market entrant should not be forced simultaneously to enter a second market, with its own large capital requirements. Such a requirement would allow the owner of an essential facility to monopolize the market as to which his facility is the "bottleneck." See Gamco, Inc. v. Providence Fruit & Produce Building, Inc., 194 F.2d 484, 487 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, 344 U.S. 817, 73 S.Ct. 11, 97 L.Ed. 636 (1952) ("To impose upon plaintiff the additional expenses of developing another site ... is clearly to extract a monopolist's advantage.").

It is also clear that lack of access to the Chicago Stadium "inflicted a severe handicap" on IBI as a competitor. The defendants do not appear to contest the district court's finding that lack of access to the Stadium was a major factor in IBI's failure to acquire the Bulls; rather, they argue that it is improper to look at the "personal preferences" of the NBA governors in determining whether a facility is essential. Such a finding, they argue, can only be based upon "objective economic reality." Appellants' Brief at 74. But "objective economic reality" is often a function of personal preferences. Appellants concede that "economic tests established for cross-elasticity of supply and demand" suitably measure economic reality, id., but the Stadium's proven ability to raise its rent without losing patronage to the Amphitheatre--in short, its market power--is itself a result of the "personal preferences" of basketball patrons. Thus, the mere existence of the Amphitheatre does not make the district court's finding clearly erroneous. "[A] monopolized resource seldom lacks substitutes; alternatives will not excuse monopolization." Gamco, 194 F.2d at 487. Both the NBA and the competitors preferred the Stadium because it is larger and better equipped for professional sports; these preferences are relevant in determining whether the Chicago Stadium is an essential facility.17

Nor did the district court err when it found that there had been a refusal to lease the Chicago Stadium and a conspiracy to refuse to lease. The record supports the finding that the Wirtzes and CSC had no legitimate business reason not to negotiate with IBI regarding a lease. Defendants argue that the ten-year lease offered Rich by Wirtz is evidence that Wirtz did not refuse to deal with IBI. We agree with the district court that this offer did not show that Wirtz was willing to deal with IBI on non-discriminatory terms: (1) Wirtz was not dealing with IBI; the proposed contract would be with Chicago Basketball; (2) Wirtz never followed up on this offer, as promised; (3) the offer was one that there was good reason to believe that Chicago Basketball would not accept. Further, it was not clearly erroneous to find that there was no business justification for requiring a ten-year guarantee by Chicago Basketball. Wirtz did not require the same from CPSC, and Wirtz never contacted Fishman to learn anything about IBI's finances. Agreeing to deal on unreasonable terms is merely a type of refusal to deal.

There is also sufficient evidence in the defendants' correspondence, both with each other and with the NBA, to support the conclusion that the Wirtzes and CSC agreed with CPSC and the individual defendants to withhold the Chicago Stadium from the plaintiffs and grant a lease only to CPSC. Defendants argue that there is no evidence of their state of mind at the time that CPSC entered into a contingent contract with CSC in April 1972. They argue that their later lobbying of the NBA shed no light on that earlier state of mind. Assuming arguendo that the defendants had no exclusionary intent in April of 1972, that does not absolve them of liability if they decided at any later time that IBI should be excluded from access to the Chicago Stadium.18

We also approve the district court's ruling that the concerted scheme to withhold a lease from IBI was a per se violation of section 1. "Per se rules are invoked when surrounding circumstances make the likelihood of anticompetitive conduct so great as to render unjustified further examination of the challenged conduct." NCAA, 468 U.S. at 103-04, 104 S.Ct. at 2962 (footnote omitted). Thus, a court's task is to distinguish between "naked" restraints of trade and those restraints that may have a salutary effect on competition or productivity. See Polk Bros., Inc. v. Forest City Enterprises, Inc., 776 F.2d 185, 188-89 (7th Cir.1985). The district court found that there were no redeeming virtues to the agreement not to provide IBI with a stadium lease and, significantly, defendants have not challenged this finding or in any way suggested that such virtues existed.

In Northwest Wholesale Stationers, Inc. v. Pacific Stationery and Printing Co., 472 U.S. 284, 105 S.Ct. 2613, 86 L.Ed.2d 202 (1985), the Supreme Court noted that group boycotts may properly be characterized as per se illegal if the defendants have either "market power" or "exclusive access to an element essential to effective competition," id. at 2621. The rationale is that in such circumstances one is justified in concluding that the refusal to deal virtually always has an anticompetitive effect. Id. See also Hecht, 570 F.2d at 993 n. 45 (restrictive covenant covering an essential facility is unreasonable per se because, by definition, all competition is excluded). The defendants claim that they had neither market power nor exclusive access to an essential facility. As we have noted, the district court found that they had both and we have approved those findings. See supra. Because there was no arguable procompetitive justification for the stadium lease violation, the district court did not err in holding it a per se violation.19E. The NBA Boycott

The district court also ruled that the NBA's refusal to approve the transfer of the Bulls to IBI was a "concerted refusal to deal" or "group boycott" agreed to and carried out by CPSC, its individual members, the NBA no-votes, Chicago Blackhawks Hockey Team, Inc., Atlanta Hockey, Inc.,^19a and Emprise Corporation. It found:

The Crown-Wirtz group (or others acting in their behalf) specifically invited and requested the NBA members to deny approval to plaintiff in order that the Crown-Wirtz group subsequently could acquire the Chicago Bulls. Among other things, the telegram from the Crown-Wirtz group to each NBA member before the meeting of June 15, 1972, and the subsequent telegram, of July 6, 1972, were clearly an invitation to deny IBI league approval so that the Crown-Wirtz group could acquire the team and perpetuate NBA presence at the Chicago Stadium. The unwarranted attendance of representatives of the Crown-Wirtz group at the June 15th NBA meeting confirmed that invitation and offered assurances that the Crown-Wirtz group and the Chicago Stadium stood ready to uphold its end of the bargain. The admitted phone calls and letters from Arthur and William Wirtz to various NBA members (including Washington, Los Angeles, Houston, Atlanta, New York, and the NBA Commissioner) further confirms that the NBA members were "invited" to boycott the plaintiff and hold out for CPSC and the Chicago Stadium. By accepting that invitation, the NBA no votes entered into a conspiracy or combination within the meaning of Sections 1 and 2 of the Sherman Act.

Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,779. The district court found that this boycott was for the anticompetitive purposes of excluding the plaintiffs from the market and depriving them of their "fairly won victory over CPSC." Id. at 74,782. As a per se illegal group boycott, the court ruled, it violated section 1, and since defendants obtained a monopoly as a result, it violated section 2 as well. We cannot approve the district court's treatment of this alleged violation, however, because the evidence supporting this common scheme shows only that CPSC shareholders successfully lobbied certain NBA members so as to ultimately win league approval for themselves.

A group boycott occurs when the plaintiff's competitors are in a position to deal with the plaintiff but agree not to. See, e.g., Klor's, Inc. v. Broadway-Hale Stores, Inc., 359 U.S. 207, 79 S.Ct. 705, 3 L.Ed.2d 741 (1959); Radiant Burners, Inc. v. Peoples Gas Light & Coke Co., 364 U.S. 656, 81 S.Ct. 365, 5 L.Ed.2d 358 (1961); Associated Press v. United States, 326 U.S. 1, 65 S.Ct. 1416, 89 L.Ed.2d 2013 (1945). Those involved must be motivated by an anticompetitive purpose and the boycott must have an anticompetitive effect. "Anticompetitiveness" is the key: "if conduct is not objectively anticompetitive, the fact that it was motivated by hostility to competitors ... is irrelevant." Olympia Equipment Leasing Co. v. Western Union Telegraph Co., 797 F.2d 370, 379 (7th Cir.1986). Hostility to a rival is not a sure sign of anticompetitiveness because "[v]igorous competitors intend to harm rivals, to do all the business if they can. To penalize this intent is to penalize competition." Ball Memorial Hospital, Inc. v. Mutual Hospital Insurance, Inc., 784 F.2d 1325, 1339 (7th Cir.1986). The concern of the antitrust laws with the integrity of the competitive process, see supra Part I.C., means that we can only find a violation--per se or under the Rule of Reason--if we have reason to believe that the competitive process has been subverted.

We approved the district court's finding of liability for the concerted refusal to lease the Chicago Stadium because it was motivated by anticompetitive concerns--destruction of competition for the Bulls franchise--and because it had exactly that anticompetitive effect. Here, it cannot be gainsaid that the defendants approached their friends in the NBA and asked to have IBI rejected because they wished to own the Bulls themselves. But the issue is whether in lobbying the NBA (ignoring for the moment that they came armed with the results of the refusal to deal in stadium leases) defendants intended to compete vigorously or destroy competition. This is a distinction particularly important to make in natural monopoly cases such as this one, where "winning" by necessity means driving all of one's competitors from the market. See Hamilton & Caulfield, The Defense of Natural Monopoly in Sherman Act Monopolization Cases, 33 DePaul L.Rev. 465, 470-71 (1984) (control of a natural monopoly market must be distinguished from the methods used to obtain that monopoly).

The district court decided that the intent was to destroy competition. This conclusion was in large part influenced by its finding that "there was not, nor could there be, 'competition' between plaintiff and the Crown-Wirtz group 'at the NBA level.' " Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,788. By this, the court meant that the NBA did not have the power actually to convey the Bulls to the defendants. Thus, the defendants had no business intermeddling with the fruits of IBI's victory--that is, the IBI-Chicago Basketball contract. We believe that this view of the competition between IBI and CPSC is short-sighted, especially in its characterization of the NBA's role. The NBA does effectively have the power to pick its members since it can reject everyone selected by the incumbent until the right new owner comes along. We think that the only possible conclusion is that IBI and CPSC were competitors, at least until July 1972, when the NBA rejected IBI as an owner of the Bulls.

The "conspiracy" to withhold NBA approval had two main parts. First, the defendants "lobbied" the NBA to reject IBI as a potential co-venturer. Second, the NBA no-votes voted to reject the transfer. It is clear that the second step--the act of voting the rejection--cannot by itself give rise to an antitrust violation. This is demonstrated by another lawsuit that arose from the activities of the NBA Board of Governors at their June 1972 White Sulphur Springs meeting. At that meeting, the Board of Governors was also asked to approve the transfer of the Boston Celtics to certain new owners. The proposed transfer was rejected and those proposed owners brought suit, alleging that their ownership was defeated by an illegal group boycott, motivated by the Governors' antipathy for one "maverick" governor who supported the transfer. The court ruled:

While it is true that the antitrust laws apply to a professional athletic league, and that joint action by members of a league can have antitrust implications this is not such a case. Here the plaintiffs wanted to join with those unwilling to accept them, not to compete with them, but to be partners in the operation of a sports league for plaintiffs' profit.

Levin v. National Basketball Association, 385 F.Supp. 149, 152 (S.D.N.Y.1974) (footnotes omitted) (emphasis in original); see also Seattle Totems Hockey Club, Inc. v. National Hockey League, 783 F.2d 1347, 1350 (9th Cir.1986); Mid-South Grizzlies v. National Football League, 720 F.2d 772, 785 (3d Cir.1983), cert. denied, 467 U.S. 1215, 104 S.Ct. 2657, 81 L.Ed.2d 364 (1984). In the case before us, the NBA decision, on its own, was not an anticompetitive act. The case before us may be distinguished by the presence of another investor group in the wings, but this does not make it an antitrust violation for the NBA to have picked the team it preferred, unless in so doing it involved itself in anticompetitive conduct.

The alleged exclusionary conduct here was that the defendants lobbied the NBA and persuaded a minority of the governors to vote against IBI. Since only one competitor could win NBA approval, it was not in itself anticompetitive for CPSC to suggest to the NBA that it should be the lucky one. Nor was it anticompetitive to contact NBA members to discuss CPSC's supposedly superior qualifications. Leaving to one side the stadium lease violations, there was no injury to competition and hence no antitrust violation. Both IBI and CPSC were free to vigorously compete for NBA approval. Indeed, as we noted in an earlier case involving lobbying alleged to be "an absolute bar to competition," "[w]hile one competitor succeeded and necessarily the other failed, unmistakably there was very strenuous competition. This unavoidable fact undermines the plaintiff's charges under Secs. 1 and 2 of the Sherman Act." Parmelee Transportation Co. v. Keeshin, 292 F.2d 794, 803, 804 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 368 U.S. 944, 82 S.Ct. 376, 7 L.Ed.2d 340 (1961).

The plaintiffs also brought pendent claims under Illinois law charging all defendants with tortious interference with contractual relations and tortious interference with prospective advantage. The district court ruled that the plaintiffs had proven both of these claims as against all defendants:

Here, plaintiffs' contract with the Bulls' owners, a contract which entitled plaintiffs to own and operate the Bulls should the NBA approve the proposed transfer of the Bulls set forth in that contract, was rendered valueless and impracticable, if not impossible, to perform by defendants' intentional and unlawful conduct directed toward obtaining the rejection of the transfer by the NBA and various NBA members.

By successfully interfering with, and destroying, plaintiff's contractual rights to purchase the Bulls, defendants also succeeded in intentionally interfering with plaintiffs' prospective business advantage of owning and operating the Bulls.

Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,783.

Tortious interference with contract requires proof of (1) a valid and enforceable contract between plaintiff and a third party; (2) defendant's knowledge of the existence of this contract; (3) inducement by defendant to the third party to breach the contract; (4) a breach; and (5) resulting damages. E.g., Zamouski v. Gerrard, 1 Ill.App.3d 890, 897, 275 N.E.2d 429, 433 (2d Dist.1971). We think that the district court erred in concluding that defendants had tortiously interfered with IBI's contract because IBI had no unconditional right under the contract to become the owner of the Bulls. In our view, this case is very close on its facts to Belden Corp. v. InterNorth, Inc., 90 Ill.App.3d 547, 45 Ill.Dec. 765, 413 N.E.2d 98 (1st Dist.1980). In that case, Belden and Crouse-Hinds, Inc. entered into an agreement to merge. The contract stated that both corporations would recommend the merger to their shareholders, who under Illinois law had the right to approve or reject the merger. InterNorth, which had been planning to make a tender offer for Crouse shares, learned of the agreement. It went forward with its tender offer, publicly announcing that the offer was conditioned upon defeat of the Belden-Crouse merger. The Crouse shareholders rejected the proposed merger, and Belden sued InterNorth for tortious interference with contract and with prospective economic advantage. The court noted that Belden had an enforceable contract with Crouse and thus an unequivocal right to Crouse's performance, i.e., that the merger would be presented and recommended to the Crouse shareholders. But Belden had no more than a "mere expectancy" in the consummation of the merger because only the Crouse shareholders could approve the merger. Since Belden's only enforceable expectation was that Crouse's management would take the merger to the shareholders and since there was no allegation that this had not occurred, there was no tortious interference with the Belden-Crouse contract. Id. at 552-53, 45 Ill.Dec. at 769, 413 N.E.2d at 102.

Similarly, in the case before us, IBI executed a valid contract with Chicago Basketball, and there is no indication that Rich did not perform his obligations under the contract (using his best efforts to win the NBA's approval and transferring ownership of the Bulls in the event of NBA approval) as expected. IBI had an enforceable right in the performance of these obligations, but prior to NBA approval it had no more than an expectancy, however reasonable, in owning the Bulls. Thus, there could be no claim for tortious interference with the IBI-Chicago Basketball contract because that contract had not been breached.20

The tort of unlawful interference with prospective advantage, on the other hand, does not depend on the existence of a contract. The essential elements are (1) plaintiff's reasonable expectation of entering a business relationship; (2) defendant's knowledge of that expectation; and (3) intentional interference by defendant that prevents plaintiff from realizing that expectation. E.g., Tom Olesker's Exciting World of Fashion, Inc. v. Dun & Bradstreet, Inc., 16 Ill.App.3d 709, 713-14, 306 N.E.2d 549, 553 (1st Dist.1973). As the court noted in Belden, this tort is similar to tortious interference with contract in that both recognize that a person's business relations are a form of property entitled to protection from unjustified tampering by others. The difference, however, lies in the degree of protection afforded:

An individual with a prospective business relationship has a mere expectancy of future economic gain; a party to a contract has a certain and enforceable expectation of receiving the benefits of the contract. When a business relationship affords the parties no enforceable expectations, but only the hope of ... benefits, the parties must allow for the rights of others. They therefore have no cause of action against a bona fide competitor unless the circumstances indicate unfair competition, that is, an unprivileged interference with prospective advantage. In sum, as the degree of enforceability of a business relationship decreases, the extent of permissible interference by an outsider increases.

Belden, 90 Ill.App.3d at 552, 45 Ill.Dec. at 769, 413 N.E.2d at 102 (footnote omitted).

Thus, there could not be a claim for tortious interference with prospective advantage in this case if CPSC did not lose its "competitor's privilege" through some sort of "unfair competition." Cf. Belden, 90 Ill.App.3d at 553, 45 Ill.Dec. at 770, 413 N.E.2d at 103; see also Galinski v. Kessler, 134 Ill.App.3d 602, 610, 89 Ill.Dec. 433, 439, 480 N.E.2d 1176, 1182 (1st Dist.1985) (lawful competition serves as privileged interference with another's business); Scheduling Corp. of America v. Massello, 119 Ill.App.3d 355, 363, 74 Ill.Dec. 796, 802, 456 N.E.2d 298, 304 (1st Dist.1983) (same).

The district court here ruled that the competitor's privilege was not available to defendants because no competition was possible after the contract was signed. We have explained why we think this is clearly erroneous. Lawful competition before the NBA was a distinct possibility in this case. However, as we have noted, defendants competed unlawfully when they withheld the Chicago Stadium from IBI, and the district court also found that CPSC's competition was not privileged because the acts by which it interfered with IBI's expectancy were independently violations of federal antitrust law. Liability Opinion, 1981-2 Trade Cas. at 74,789. The parties do not enlarge upon this point on appeal. Nevertheless, we believe that Illinois law is clear on this point. In Galinski, 134 Ill.App.3d at 610, 89 Ill.Dec. at 439, 480 N.E.2d at 1182, the court discussed what constitutes lawful competition in the area of interference with business relationships. It adopted the formulation of the Restatement (Second) of Torts, Sec. 768 (1979):

(1) One who intentionally causes a third person not to enter into a prospective contractual relation with another who is his competitor ... does not interfere improperly with the other's relation if

(a) the relation concerns a matter involved in the competition between the actor and the other and(b) the actor does not employ wrongful means and

(c) his action does not create or continue in an unlawful restraint of trade and

(d) his purpose is at least in part to advance his interest in competing with the other.

See also Candalaus Chicago, Inc. v. Evans Mill Supply Co., 51 Ill.App.3d 38, 9 Ill.Dec. 62, 366 N.E.2d 319 (1st Dist.1977) (relying on substantially same Sec. 768 of First Restatement); Getschow v. Commonwealth Edison Co., 111 Ill.App.3d 522, 67 Ill.Dec. 343, 444 N.E.2d 579 (1st Dist.1982), aff'd in relevant part, 99 Ill.2d 528, 77 Ill.Dec. 83, 459 N.E.2d 1332 (1984) (third party's acts must be legal and not unreasonable in the circumstances); Petit v. Cuneo, 290 Ill.App. 16, 7 N.E.2d 774 (1st Dist.1937) (interference not actionable because not independently illegal); Doremus v. Hennessy, 176 Ill. 608, 54 N.E. 925 (1898) ("lawful competition" that may injure the business of another not actionable); see generally 34 Illinois Law and Practice, Torts, Sec. 10, at 365 ("if unlawful means are used, the conduct of the person is not justified or privileged as a competitor"). Relying on these authorities, we conclude that under Illinois law the defendants' actions were not privileged as those of a competitor.

IBI had a reasonable expectation of entering a valid business relationship with Rich. Defendants knew of this expectancy. Defendants intentionally interfered with this expectancy, through an unfair and anticompetitive act--the concerted refusal to lease the Stadium--that lost them their competitors' privilege.21 Thus, we approve the finding of liability on state law grounds, insofar as it is premised upon tortious interference with prospective advantage.

A. The District Court's Calculation of Damages

By their unlawful conduct, defendants precluded plaintiff IBI from acquiring the Chicago NBA franchise in the summer of 1972 and from enjoying the anticipated economic benefits of owning and operating that business. Rather, certain of the defendants have had the opportunity to enjoy and exploit the very same business over the past ten years.

Fishman v. Estate of Wirtz, 594 F.Supp. 853, 858 (N.D.Ill.1984) ("Damages Opinion").22 Since CPSC had acquired and operated "the very same business sought by IBI," the district court found it "just and reasonable" to calculate plaintiff IBI's damages according to the "yardstick" of CPSC's actual financial experience from 1972 until 1982. It supported that decision with two findings: (1) IBI and CPSC had similar investment objectives for the Bulls; and (2) the financial success of the Bulls during the relevant ten years was not "attributable to any skill or resources contributed to the business by CPSC." Id. at 859. We will outline the steps that the district court took in calculating IBI's damages and then will discuss the objections raised to both its methodology and results, both by defendants and by IBI in its cross-appeal.

The district court started with the proposition:

The financial benefits specifically realized by CPSC flowed (i) from the increasing going concern value of the business and (ii) from the cash generated from operation. These are the same sources that NBA owners generally attempt to exploit and are the sources IBI specifically intended to exploit.

Id. at 861.23 Thus, the court determined that IBI should receive as damages its lost financial gain, which could be computed by determining the net value of CPSC's assets on May 31, 1982 (i.e., the fair market or going-concern value of the assets minus all liabilities) and then subtracting the net contributions made to CPSC by its shareholders. This "yardstick" figure would then be adjusted by a series of predictable differences in value attributable to IBI rather than CPSC ownership to determine a hypothetical "total financial gain" for IBI.

The first and most difficult step was to determine the fair market value of the Chicago Bulls franchise in 1982. This was accomplished by looking at recent sales prices of "comparable" NBA franchises.24 The plaintiffs and defendants disagreed as to how the "sales price" of a professional sports franchise should be computed. A common way to pay for a professional sports team is to tender cash and notes and also assume the liabilities of the franchise. The district court agreed with the plaintiffs that assumed liabilities properly comprise part of the "price" of a franchise.25 But it did not adopt the plaintiffs' proposed valuation method in its entirety because one class of assumed liability--liability for deferred compensation--would create problems in valuing the comparable teams:

The problem with plaintiffs' approach is not in their inclusion of deferred compensation in assessing the sale price of the assets of the comparable teams. Rather, it is an assumption that those asset values can be used directly to compute the value of the assets of the Bulls. The Bulls have their own unique structure of player contracts. Those player contracts undoubtedly will be of shorter duration and for lower dollar amounts than those of some NBA teams and will be of longer duration and for higher dollar amounts than other teams. The player contract assets of the teams, therefore, are not comparable.

The problem arising out of the incomparability of player contracts of otherwise reasonably comparable teams can be solved by simply eliminating deferred compensation entirely from all computations of the sales price of the comparables. In addition, the Bulls' actual deferred compensation will not be deducted from our valuation of the Bulls' assets to determine the Bulls' net market value.

Id. at 863-64 (emphasis in original). Central to this "hybrid" method of valuation was the district court's assumption that the relative length or brevity of a team's player contracts does not influence the fair market value of a team:

Team ownership does not become more attractive the more player contracts a team has and the more it is obligated to pay for them. The accounting worth of a team is not enhanced by simply adding equal amounts of assets and liabilities to its balance sheet. Teams with longer term, higher dollar player contracts will have a higher value on their balance sheets for their basketball assets, but not a higher net worth.

A team can, of course, either increase or decrease its market worth by entering into player contracts. It increases its net worth by making good deals, i.e., negotiating contracts which set player compensation low relative to their incremental contribution to the team[']s revenue so that the contracts add to the team's profitability. Conversely, a franchise can decrease its market worth by making bad deals.

Id. at 863 n. 9. Since the district court would later in the damages calculation subtract CPSC's actual liabilities (since IBI, in fact, assumed no liabilities at all), it elected to omit liabilities for de